Analyte detection using near-infrared fluorophores

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of compounds for selectively detecting an analyte are disclosed, along with methods and kits for detecting analytes with the compounds. The compounds are bridged viologen conjugates including at least one fluorophore according to the general structure 
     
       
         
         
             
             
         
       
     
     At least one of R 1 /R 2 , R 2 /R 3 , R 3 /R 4 , R 5 /R 6 , R 6 /R 7 , and/or R 7 /R 8  together form a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/505,029, filed Jul. 6, 2011, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/502,795, filed Jun. 29, 2011, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under R01 EB002044 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

Embodiments of compounds comprising near-infrared fluorophores, methods, and kits for the detection of analytes are disclosed.

BACKGROUND

A barrier to simplified diagnostic testing is that current clinical chemistry technologies require significant sample preparation and handling for the analysis of complex biological samples. Sample preparation is a major bottleneck in diagnostics. Indicator fluorophores for specific biomarkers capable of functioning directly in an analyte's medium (e.g., blood, urine) without sample handling or separation steps would require fewer manipulations, thereby producing quicker results and reducing potential health hazards due to sample handling. However, surprisingly little progress has been made developing such fluorophores. This is due at least partially to the relative lack of long wavelength probes.

There are relatively few classes of near infrared (NIR) active dyes, or fluorophores, that are routinely used, and only one NIR dye is currently approved for clinical use. Advantages of NIR dyes include minimal interfering absorption and fluorescence from biological samples, inexpensive laser diode excitation, and reduced scattering and enhanced tissue penetration depth. However, there are only relatively few classes of such dyes readily available. These include the phthalocyanines, cyanine dyes and squaraine dyes. Each class of dye has inherent strengths and limitations. For example, almost all the established groups of long-wavelength fluorophores have very small Stokes shifts (i.e., emission-excitation wavelength differences), e.g., 10 nm (Miller, Springer Ser. Fluoresc., 2008, 5, 147-162). If used in conjunction with a relatively broad band light source, such as an LED, there may be significant scattered light background signal, producing a poor signal:noise ratio.

Previous research has investigated red-shifting xanthene dyes for biodiagnostics and imaging applications. Long-wavelength, xanthene-based dyes have been used in cellular imaging applications. However, their spectral properties do not fall within the useful NIR “blood window” of 700-800 nm, which facilitates analyte detection in blood. Rhodamines are “red” or long-wavelength xanthene dyes. One notable long wavelength xanthene dye is rhodamine 800 which emits at the interface of the red and NIR, a few nanometers above or below 700 nm depending on the solvent. However, it suffers from limited water solubility and dimer formation and a small Stokes shift of 16 nm (Sauer et al., J. Fluoresc., 1995, 5, 247-261), which complicates analysis in blood. Another innovation includes “JA” dyes which shift the spectra toward longer wavelength through the addition of double bonds to the nitrogen-containing rings. (Sauer et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 5,750,409). Arden-Jacob and co-workers developed an improved series of fluorophores for biodiagnostics in the red region. However, these dyes exhibit rather small Stokes shifts and do not absorb or emit in the NIR (U.S. Pat. No. 5,750,409).

Annulation is another approach used to produce longer wavelength fluorophores. Type [c] annulated xanthenes include seminaphthofluorescein (SNAFL) and seminaphthorhodafluor (SNARF) compound developed by Haugland (Whitaker et al., Anal. Biochem., 1991, 194, 330-344), which have been used as ratiometric pH sensors, metal ion sensors and imaging probes. (Chang et al., PNAS, 2004, 101, 1129-1134; Nolan et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2007, 129, 5910-5918.)

The detection of biologically important thiols has been the focus of much research. Different naturally-occurring thiols, which may have similar structures, may have quite different physiological properties. The physiological effects and correlations that have been observed for these thiols are a public health concern. Examples of low molecular weight thiols that have more-or-less similar structures, but that have disparate physiological properties, include cysteine (Cys), homocysteine (Hcy), glutathione (GSH), N-acetylcysteine, and penicillamine.

Glutathione is of particular interest to medical professionals. Glutathione levels are indicative of oxidative stress. Additionally, low glutathione levels may be linked, for example, to mitochondrial diseases, autism, and mercury poisoning.

Thiols are easily oxidized, and are typically colorless and non-fluorescent at visible wavelengths. Most reported methods for thiol detection have been based upon nonspecific redox chemistry, immunoassays, or upon derivatization with chromophores or fluorophores. Generic methods for detecting thiols do not readily distinguish among the structurally similar species. There is a substantial need for improved methods for detecting and quantifying biological thiols.

Methylviologen (MV²⁺) is a 4,4′-dipyridyl dication:

MV²⁺ has been used as an oxidant in an investigation of the equilibrium kinetics of both the reducing disulfide and the α-amino carbon-centered radicals derived from Hcy, Cys and GSH. Reducing radical formation was monitored via changes in the UV-Vis spectra of solutions containing the methylviologen radical cation that formed in the presence of the biological thiols. See R. Zhao et al., “Kinetics of one-electron oxidation of thiols and hydrogen abstraction by thiyl radicals from α-amino C—H bonds,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 116, pp. 12010-12015 (1994); and R. Zhao et al., “Significance of the intramolecular transformation of glutathione thiyl radicals to α-aminoalkyl radicals. Thermochemical and biological implications,” J. Chem. Soc., Perkins Trans., vol. 2, pp. 569-574 (1997) It was surmised that formation of the reducing α-aminoalkyl radical derived from Hcy should be particularly favorable, due to an intramolecular hydrogen abstraction mechanism involving a five-atom ring transition state (See FIG. 1A). By contrast, in the case of either Cys or GSH, H-atom abstraction to a reducing carbon-centered radical would proceed via less-favored four-membered ring (FIG. 1B) or nine-membered ring (not shown) transition state geometries, respectively. See FIGS. 1A and 1B, depicting the inferred proton abstraction leading to formation of the α-aminoalkyl radical from the thiyl radicals of Hcy and Cys, respectively. These references do not disclose any appreciable colorimetric selectivity among homocysteine, cysteine, and glutathione.

U.S. Publication 2008/0261315, which is incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method for selectively determining homocysteine with methylviologen. Heating a sample containing Hcy with a colorless solution of methylviologen for five minutes or longer at a temperature between about 25° C. and 110° C. and a pH between about 3.9 and about 9.5 produces a visible color change. Color formation can be monitored via the appearance of absorption peaks at 398 nm and 605 nm. In contrast, samples containing Cys or GSH remain colorless when heated with a solution of methylviologen under similar conditions.

SUMMARY

Embodiments of compounds for selectively detecting analytes are disclosed. Also disclosed are embodiments of methods and kits for performing the detection. Embodiments of the disclosed compounds when reacted with one or more analytes in solution, produce a detectable change in the solution's absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum. The solution may include a biological fluid (e.g., blood or urine).

Embodiments of the disclosed compounds are bridged viologen conjugates with a structure according to Formula I, II, or III:

where X⁻ is any counteranion, R^(A) and R^(B) independently are substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, or substituted or unsubstituted aryl or heteroaryl comprising one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic rings and/or heteroaromatic rings, and at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (i)

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements; X¹ is O, S, Se, Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, Sn(CH₃)₂, CH₂, C(CH₃)₂, or NH; R¹, R², and R⁴ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, halogen, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

R⁵, R⁷, and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R³ and R⁶ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, oxygen, sulfur, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, cycloalkyl imino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; at least one of R¹ and R², R² and R³, R³ and R⁴, R⁵ and R⁶, R⁶ and R⁷, and/or R⁷ and R⁸ together form a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, alkyl, acyl, carboxyl, nitro, amino, alkyl amino, or —SO₃H; R¹³ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; and at least one of R¹-R¹³ is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone.

In some embodiments, at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi)

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements; X¹ and R¹-R¹⁴ are as defined above; R¹⁵-R²² independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; and at least one of R¹-R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, R¹³ is the linker and has the formula —COO—. In some embodiments, X¹ is oxygen. In certain embodiments, R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring, and at least one of R¹-R¹² or R¹⁵-R²² is the linker.

In some embodiments, the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (ix), or (x) where X¹ is oxygen, R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ independently are halogen, hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ is other than hydrogen. In certain embodiments, the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁹ and R²¹ independently are hydroxyl, thiol, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁹ and R²¹ is other than hydrogen; in particular embodiments, the preceding fluorophore according to general formula (iv) further includes halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above at R¹⁶ or R¹⁸. In some embodiments, the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (iii) where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c) or a structure according to general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c). In certain embodiments, the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (vi) where R¹⁷ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, and R²⁰ is oxygen, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above.

Some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates include at least one fluorophore according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) or (xi) that has an emission spectrum maximum at a wavelength greater than or equal to 700 nm, such as greater than or equal to 750 nm. In certain embodiments, the fluorophore has a Stokes shift greater than or equal to 80 nm, such as greater than or equal to 100 nm.

In some embodiments, both R^(A) and R^(B) are fluorophores, each fluorophore independently having a structure selected from general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi). In certain embodiments, R^(A) and R^(B) have an identical structure. In some embodiments, one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x) or (xi), and the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is a lower alkyl nitrile, lower alkyl substituted phenyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted coumarin, acetal, or carboxylate group. In certain embodiments, the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is

Embodiments of the compounds can be used to detect analytes. In some embodiments, a method for detecting an analyte includes forming a solution by combining a sample including an analyte with an embodiment of the disclosed compounds, allowing a reaction between the analyte and the compound in the solution to proceed for an effective period of time to a produce a detectable change in the solution's color, absorbance spectrum, emission spectrum, or a combination thereof, where the change indicates that the analyte is present, and detecting the change. In some embodiments, the change is detected by exposing the solution to a light source and detecting the analyte by detecting fluorescence from the compound. For example, fluorescence can be detected at a wavelength corresponding to an emission spectrum maximum of the compound after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In certain embodiments, the method further includes quantitating the analyte by measuring an amount of fluorescence from the compound at a wavelength corresponding to an emission spectrum maximum of the compound.

In some embodiments, the change is detected by detecting a change in absorbance of the solution at one or more wavelengths after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In certain embodiments, an absorbance spectrum of the solution at a first time after combining the sample and the compound is compared to an absorbance spectrum of the solution after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In other embodiments, an emission spectrum of the solution at a first time after combining the sample and the compound is compared to an emission spectrum of the solution after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time.

In some embodiments, the sample comprises a biological fluid, such as blood or urine. In certain embodiments, the analyte is cysteine, homocysteine, glutathione, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof.

When the analyte includes glutathione, cysteine, and/or homocysteine, the compound may include at least one fluorophore according to general formula (vi) where X¹ is O, S, Se, Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, Sn(CH₃)₂, CH₂, or NH; R¹, R⁴, R⁵ and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, alkyl, acyl, carboxyl, nitro, amino, alkyl amino, or —SO₃H; R¹³ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; R¹⁵-R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or alkoxy; R¹⁹-R²² independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, halogen, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, or alkyl amino; and at least one of R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸-R¹³, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²¹ or R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, R¹³ is the linker and has the formula —COO—. In some embodiments, when the analyte is glutathione, R¹⁷ is hydroxyl, amino, or alkyl amino, and R²⁰ is oxygen, hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, imino, or alkyl iminium. In certain embodiments, when the analyte is succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, at least one of R¹⁷ and R²⁰ is —NHR^(c). In such embodiments, R¹³ typically is —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, and the linker is at R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, or R¹².

Embodiments of kits for detecting an analyte include at least one embodiment of the disclosed compounds that, when combined with a sample (e.g., a biological fluid) comprising the analyte, will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound in a sample that does not comprise the analyte. In some embodiments, the kit further includes at least one buffer solution in which the compound, when combined with a sample comprising the analyte, will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound combined with the buffer solution and a sample that does not comprise the analyte. Certain embodiments of the kits also may include a color comparison chart for evaluating a color change produced by a reaction between the compound and the analyte. In some embodiments, the kit further includes a plurality of disposable containers in which a reaction between the compound and the analyte can be performed. In particular embodiments, an amount of the compound effective to undergo a detectable change in the color, absorbance spectrum, the emission spectrum, or a combination thereof when reacted with the analyte is premeasured into the plurality of disposable containers.

In some embodiments where the analyte is cysteine, homocysteine, glutathione, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, the kit includes a compound having at least one fluorophore according to general formula (vi) where R¹⁷ is hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, and R²⁰ is oxygen, hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, imino, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above.

The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures, at least some of which are submitted in full color.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B depict the inferred proton abstraction leading to formation of an α-aminoalkyl radical from the thiyl radicals of homocysteine and cysteine, respectively.

FIG. 2 includes general chemical structures of type [c] annulated xanthenes with substituents at carbon-1 or carbon-3 of the annulated ring, where R is —OH or —N(CH₃)₂, R′ is oxygen or —N(CH₃)₂ ⁺, and R″ is hydrogen or lower alkyl.

FIG. 3 shows the energy-minimized structures and π-π stacking of single bridged ortho-, meta- and para-bis coumarin viologen analogues.

FIG. 4 is the energy-minimized structure of a supramolecular assembly of glutathione and the para-bis coumarin viologen.

FIG. 5 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having a chemical structure according to general formula (iv).

FIG. 6 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having a semi-naphthofluorescein chemical structure according to general formula (iii).

FIG. 7 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having a rhodol or rhodamine chemical structure according to general formula (iii).

FIG. 8 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes having a chemical structure according to general formula (iv).

FIG. 9 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having chemical structures according to general formulas (vi) and (viii)-(xi).

FIG. 10 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having chemical structures according to general formulas (v) and (vii).

FIG. 11 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having chemical structures according to general formula (i) where X¹ is Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, or Sn(CH₃)₂.

FIG. 12 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having chemical structures according to general formula (i) where X¹ is S or Se.

FIG. 13 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having bis-boronic acid chemical structures according to general formula (iii).

FIG. 14 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of some embodiments of the disclosed dyes having bis-boronic acid chemical structures according to general formula (iv).

FIG. 15 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of one embodiment of the disclosed NIR dye-viologen conjugates.

FIG. 16 is a reaction scheme illustrating the synthesis of another embodiment of the disclosed NIR dye-viologen conjugates.

FIGS. 17-19 show the energy-minimized structures of single bridged ortho-, meta- and para-bis rhodol viologen analogues, respectively.

FIG. 20 illustrates the molecular interactions of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes with glutathione.

FIG. 21 illustrates the molecular interactions of two embodiments of the disclosed dyes with S-Ado (left) and SAICAr (right).

FIG. 22 is an x-ray structure of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes.

FIG. 23 is a series of absorbance spectra of two embodiments of the disclosed dyes in their dianion and monanion states.

FIG. 24 is a series of absorbance spectra of two embodiments of the disclosed dyes in their neutral and anionic forms.

FIG. 25 is a series of absorbance spectra of two embodiments of the disclosed dyes in their neutral and anionic forms.

FIG. 26 is a series of absorbance spectra of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes in its phenolic and phenoxide forms.

FIG. 27 is a series of absorbance spectra of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes in its phenolic and phenoxide forms.

FIG. 28 is a series of absorbance spectra of two embodiments of the disclosed dyes in their cationic forms.

FIG. 29 is a series of pH titration curves of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes.

FIG. 30 is a series of spectra of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes in buffer and in 5% whole blood in buffer.

FIG. 31A is an absorption spectrum of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes in 10% whole blood.

FIG. 31B is a series of emission spectra of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes in 10% and 90% whole blood.

FIG. 32 is a series of absorption spectra showing the effect of ionization on the absorption maxima of several embodiments of the disclosed dyes.

FIG. 33 shows the intramolecular hydrogen-bond network of one embodiment of the disclosed dyes.

FIG. 34 is a molecular simulation showing that hydrogen bonding enhances coplanarity of the fused ring system for one embodiment of the disclosed dyes, which is diminished upon deprotonation.

FIGS. 35 a-f are absorption and fluorescence spectra of two embodiments of rhodamine bis-boronic acids and their respective precursors. Spectra were obtained in DMSO:buffer 1:9 (FIGS. 35 a-c) and DMSO:buffer 1:1 (FIGS. 35 d-f).

FIG. 36 is a series of DMSO titration curves for two embodiments of rhodamine bis-boronic acids and their respective precursors; final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM.

FIGS. 37 a-d are absorbance and fluorescence spectra of one embodiment of a rhodamine bis-boronic acid in response to various saccharides. FIG. 37 a is absorption and emission spectra of the compound (3.75 μM) in response to 10 mM sugars in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 37 b is fluorescence emission (ex. 580 nm/em. 660 nm) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 37 c is absorption and emission spectra of the compound (3.75 μM) in response to 10 mM sugars in DMSO:buffer 1:1; FIG. 37 d is fluorescence emission (ex. 580 nm/em. 640 nm) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1. The final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM.

FIGS. 38 a-d are absorbance and fluorescence spectra of one embodiment of a rhodamine bis-boronic acid in response to various saccharides. FIG. 38 a is absorption (630 nm) spectra of the compound (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 38 b is fluorescence (ex. 630/em. 690 nm) spectra of the compound (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 38 c is absorption (640 nm) spectra of the compound (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1; FIG. 38 d is fluorescence (ex. 640/em. 700 nm) spectra of the compound (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1; The final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM.

FIG. 39 shows the energy-minimized structure of one embodiment of a complex formed between a ribose and one embodiment of a rhodamine bis-boronic acid compound.

FIG. 40 shows the energy-minimized structure of one embodiment of a complex formed between two molecules of fructose and one embodiment of a rhodamine bis-boronic acid compound.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of compounds for selectively detecting analytes are disclosed. The compounds include a bridged viologen backbone and may include at least one fluorophore. Also disclosed are embodiments of methods and kits for performing the detection. Embodiments of the disclosed compounds when reacted with one or more analytes in solution produce a detectable change in the solution's absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum. In some embodiments, the compounds include a fluorophore capable of producing an emission spectrum having a maximum at a wavelength in the near-infrared region, i.e., a near-infrared (NIR) dye. Certain embodiments of compounds including a near-infrared fluorophore moiety exhibit a combination of desirable characteristics, including (i) relatively low molecular weight, (ii) aqueous solubility, and/or (iii) dual excitation and emission from their fluorescent neutral and anionic forms. Importantly, systematic changes in the regiochemistry of benzannulation and the ionizable moieties afford (iv) tunable deep-red to NIR emission and (v) enhanced Stokes shifts. Advantageously, particular embodiments of the disclosed compounds produce an emission spectrum maximum at a wavelength outside the range of interference from bodily fluids such as blood or urine, making the compounds suitable for direct detection of analytes in biological fluids.

I. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The following explanations of terms and abbreviations are provided to better describe the present disclosure and to guide those of ordinary skill in the art in the practice of the present disclosure. As used herein, “comprising” means “including” and the singular forms “a” or “an” or “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term “or” refers to a single element of stated alternative elements or a combination of two or more elements, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

Unless explained otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, suitable methods and materials are described below. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features of the disclosure are apparent from the following detailed description and the claims.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, molecular weights, percentages, temperatures, times, and so forth, as used in the specification or claims are to be understood as being modified by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated, implicitly or explicitly, the numerical parameters set forth are approximations that may depend on the desired properties sought and/or limits of detection under standard test conditions/methods. When directly and explicitly distinguishing embodiments from discussed prior art, the embodiment numbers are not approximates unless the word “about” is recited.

Definitions of common terms in chemistry may be found in Richard J. Lewis, Sr. (ed.), Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997 (ISBN 0-471-29205-2).

In order to facilitate review of the various embodiments of the disclosure, the following explanations of specific terms are provided:

Absorbance: The retention by a compound or substance of certain wavelengths of radiation incident upon it; a measure of the amount of light at a particular wavelength absorbed as the light passes through a compound or substance, or through a solution of a compound or substance.

The term aliphatic means having a branched or unbranched carbon chain. The chain may be saturated (having all single bonds) or unsaturated (having one or more double or triple bonds).

Alkyl refers to a hydrocarbon group having a saturated carbon chain. The chain may be branched or unbranched. The term lower alkyl means the chain includes 1-10 carbon atoms.

An analogue or derivative is a compound that is derived from a similar compound, or a compound that can be imagined to arise from another compound, for example, if one atom is replaced with another atom or group of atoms. Analogues may differ from one another inone or more atoms, functional groups, or substructures, which are replaced with other atoms, groups, or substructures.

Annelation/annulation is a chemical reaction in which one cyclic or ring structure is added to another to form a polycyclic, or annulated, compound. Annulation can be categorized as type [a], type [b], or type [c], depending on the position of the newly added ring. Type [a] refers to “down annulation,” type [b] refers to “across annulation,” and type [c] refers to “up annulation,” as shown below:

As used herein, the term “annulated” refers to having or consisting of rings or ringlike segments. The term “benzannulated” refers to derivatives of cyclic compounds (usually aromatic), which are fused to a benzene ring. Examples of benzannulated compounds include, inter alia, benzopyrenes, quinolines, naphthoquinones, naphthofluoresceins, rhodamines, and xanthenes.

Aromatic or aryl compounds typically are unsaturated, cyclic hydrocarbons having alternate single and double bonds. Benzene, a 6-carbon ring containing three double bonds, is a typical aromatic compound.

A bathochromic shift is a change of spectral band position in the absorption, reflectance, transmittance, or emission spectrum of a molecule to a longer wavelength, or lower frequency. A bathochromic shift commonly is referred to as a “red shift.” Bathochromic shifts can occur in the spectra of a series of structurally related molecules with different substitutions and/or substitution patterns. A change in environment, e.g., solvent polarity, also can produce a bathochromic shift.

Conjugate: A first unit coupled to a second unit. As used herein, the term “conjugate” refers to one molecule covalently bonded to another molecule.

Coumarin: A benzopyrone having the following general structure:

As used herein, “substituted coumarin” refers to a coumarin including one or more substituents. Suitable substituents may include substituted or unsubstituted lower alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted lower alkoxy, lower alkyl carbonyl, substituted or unsubstituted amino, halo, and hydroxyl groups. In some embodiments, the coumarin is substituted at the 3- and/or 7-position with, for example, a lower alkyl, lower alkyl carbonyl, lower alkoxy, amino or substituted amino group.

Detect: To determine if an agent (such as a target molecule) is present or absent, for example, in a sample. “Detecting” refers to any method of determining if something exists, or does not exist, such as determining if a target molecule is present in a biological sample. For example, “detecting” can include using a visual or a mechanical device to determine if a sample displays a specific characteristic.

Emission or an emission signal refers to the light of a particular wavelength generated from a source. In particular examples, an emission signal is emitted from a fluorophore after the fluorophore absorbs light at its excitation wavelength(s).

Excitation or an excitation signal refers to the light of a particular wavelength necessary and/or sufficient to excite an electron transition to a higher energy level. In particular examples, an excitation signal is the light of a particular wavelength necessary and/or sufficient to excite a fluorophore to a state such that the fluorophore will emit a different (such as a longer) wavelength of light than the wavelength of light from the excitation signal.

Fluorescence is the emission of visible radiation by an atom or molecule passing from a higher to a lower electronic state, wherein the time interval between absorption and emission of energy is 10⁻⁸ to 10⁻³ second. As used herein, fluorescence occurs when the atom or molecule absorbs energy from an excitation source (e.g., a lamp producing light within a wavelength range of 190-850 nm) and then emits the energy as visible and/or near-infrared radiation.

A fluorophore, or fluorogen, is a compound capable of fluorescence, such as a fluorescent dye. The term “fluorophore” also refers to the portion of a molecule that causes the molecule to fluoresce when exposed to an excitation source.

A functional group is a specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of the molecule. Exemplary functional groups include, without limitation, alkane, alkene, alkyne, arene, halo (fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo), epoxide, hydroxyl, carbonyl (ketone), aldehyde, carbonate ester, carboxylate, ether, ester, peroxy, hydroperoxy, carboxamide, amine (primary, secondary, tertiary), ammonium, imide, azide, cyanate, isocyanate, thiocyanate, nitrate, nitrite, nitrile, nitroalkane, nitroso, pyridyl, phosphate, sulfonyl, sulfide, thiol (sulfhydryl), disulfide.

Heteroaryl compounds are aromatic compounds having at least one heteroatom, i.e., one or more carbon atoms in the ring has been replaced with an atom having at least one lone pair of electrons, typically nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur.

Imino refers to a functional group having the formula ═NH.

Iminium refers to a protonated or substituted imine, e.g., ═NH₂ ⁺ or (═NR_(A)R_(B))⁺ where R_(A) and R_(B) represent alkyl or substituted alkyl groups. As used herein, (═NR_(A)R_(B))⁺ is referred to as an alkyl iminium group.

MIP: Molecule-imprinted polymer.

Near infrared (NIR) is a region of the electromagnetic spectrum between the visible region and the infrared region. There is no set definition for the boundaries of the near-infrared region, but definitions include the wavelength ranges from 650-2500 nm, 750-2500 nm, 780-2500 nm, 800-2500 nm, 700-1400 nm, or 780-3000 nm. As used herein, NIR typically refers to the wavelength region of 700-1400 nm.

A rhodol is a structural hybrid of fluorescein and a rhodamine. Rhodamines are a family of related fluorone dyes. The structures of fluorescein, a rhodamine, and two rhodol analogues are shown below.

SNAFL: Seminaphthofluorescein

SNAFR: Seminaphthofluorone

SNARF: Seminaphthorhodafluor

Stokes shift refers to the difference (in wavelength or frequency units) between absorbance spectrum maximum and the emission spectrum maximum of the same electronic transition. Typically, the wavelength of maximum fluorescence emission is longer than that of the exciting radiation, i.e., the wavelength of maximum absorbance.

A substituent is an atom or group of atoms that replaces another atom in a molecule as the result of a reaction. The term “substituent” typically refers to an atom or group of atoms that replaces a hydrogen atom on a parent hydrocarbon chain or ring.

Substituted: A fundamental compound, such as an aryl or aliphatic compound, or a radical thereof, having coupled thereto, typically in place of a hydrogen atom, a second substituent. For example, substituted aryl compounds or substituents may have an aliphatic group coupled to the closed ring of the aryl base, such as with toluene. Again solely by way of example and without limitation, a long-chain hydrocarbon may have a substituent bonded thereto, such as one or more halogens, an aryl group, a cyclic group, a heteroaryl group or a heterocyclic group.

Xanthene is an organic heterocyclic compound with the formula C₁₃H₁₀O.

Xanthene derivatives are referred to as xanthenes, and include fluorescein, rhodamine, and derivatives thereof.

II. OVERVIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE EMBODIMENTS

Embodiments of fluorophore-viologen conjugates that selectively detect analytes in buffered solutions and/or biological media are disclosed. Also disclosed are embodiments of methods and kits for performing the detection. Embodiments of the disclosed compounds when reacted with one or more analytes in solution, produce a detectable change in the solution's absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum.

Embodiments of the disclosed compounds have a structure according to Formula I, Formula II, or Formula III as described herein. In some embodiments, at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi) as described herein, where at least one of R¹-R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone, and wherein if the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (iii) then at least one of R¹ and R⁸ is other than hydrogen or R¹³ is not —COOR¹⁴. In any or all of the above embodiments, R¹³ may be the linker and have the formula —COO—.

In any or all of the above embodiments, both R^(A) and R^(B) may be fluorophores independently having a structure selected according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi). In some embodiments, R^(A) and R^(B) have an identical structure.

In any or all of the above embodiments, one of R^(A) and R^(B) may be a fluorophore according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi), and the other of R^(A) and R^(B) may be a lower alkyl nitrile, lower alkyl substituted phenyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted coumarin, acetal, or carboxylate group. In some embodiments, the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is

In any or all of the above embodiments, X¹ may be oxygen. In any or all of the above embodiments, at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) may be a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (i), where R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring, and at least one of R¹-R¹² is the linker. In any or all of the above embodiments, at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) may be a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi), where R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring, and at least one of R¹-R¹² or R¹⁵-R²² is the linker. In any or all of the above embodiments, the compound may comprise at least one halogen atom positioned adjacent to an ionizable moiety.

In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi) may have an emission spectrum maximum at a wavelength greater than or equal to 700 nm, such as an emission spectrum maximum greater than or equal to 750 nm. In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore according to general formula (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi) may have a Stokes shift greater than or equal to 80 nm, such as greater than or equal to 100 nm.

In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore may have a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (ix), or (x) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁸ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or alkoxy. In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore may have a structure according to general formula (vi) where R¹⁷ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c), and R²⁰ is oxygen, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c).

In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore may have a structure according to general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁹ is hydroxyl, thiol, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, or alkyl amino. In some embodiments, R¹⁸ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or alkoxy. In any or all of the above embodiments, the fluorophore may have a structure according to general formula (iii) where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c) or a structure according to general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c).

A method for detecting an analyte includes forming a solution by combining a sample comprising an analyte with a compound according to any or all of the above embodiments, allowing a reaction between the analyte and the compound in the solution to proceed for an effective period of time to a produce a detectable change in the solution's absorbance spectrum, emission spectrum, or both, where the change indicates that the analyte is present, and detecting the change.

In any or all of the embodiments, detecting the change may include detecting a change in absorbance of the solution at one or more wavelengths after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In any or all of the embodiments, detecting the change may include comparing an absorbance spectrum of the solution at a first time after combining the sample and the compound to an absorbance spectrum of the solution after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In any or all of the embodiments, detecting the change may include comparing an emission spectrum of the solution at a first time after combining the sample and the compound to an emission spectrum of the solution after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. In any or all of the embodiments, detecting the change may include comparing a color of the solution before reaction with the compound to a color of the solution after reaction with the compound for the effective period of time.

In any or all of the embodiments, detecting the change may include exposing the solution to a light source, and detecting the analyte by detecting fluorescence from the compound. In some embodiments, the light source has a wavelength in the range of 190 nm to 850 nm. In some embodiments, detecting fluorescence from the compound includes detecting fluorescence at a wavelength corresponding to an emission spectrum maximum of the compound after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. The compound may have an emission spectrum maximum at a wavelength greater than or equal to 700 nm, such as greater than or equal to 750 nm. In some embodiments, the method further includes quantitating the analyte by measuring an amount of fluorescence from the compound at a wavelength corresponding to an emission spectrum maximum of the compound.

In any or all of the above embodiments, the sample may be a biological fluid. In some embodiments, the biological fluid comprises blood or urine. In any or all of the above embodiments, the analyte may be cysteine, homocysteine, glutathione, or a combination thereof.

In any or all of the above embodiments, the analyte may be cysteine, homocysteine, glutathione, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination of succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside and succinyladenosine. In such embodiments, the compound may include at least one fluorophore according to general formula (vi) where X¹ is O, S, Se, Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, Sn(CH₃)₂, CH₂, or NH; R¹, R⁴, R⁵ and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, alkyl, acyl, carboxyl, nitro, amino, alkyl amino, or —SO₃H; R¹³ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; R¹⁵-R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy or —NHR^(c); R¹⁹-R²² independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, halogen, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c); and at least one of R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸-R¹³, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²¹ or R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone. In some embodiments, R¹³ is the linker and has the formula —COO—. In some embodiments, the analyte is glutathione, R¹⁷ is hydroxyl, amino, or alkyl amino, and R²⁰ is oxygen, hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, imino, or alkyl iminium. In some embodiments, the analyte is succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, at least one of R¹⁷ and R²⁰ is —NHR^(c), R¹³ is —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, and one of R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, or R¹² is the linker. In certain embodiments, the analyte is succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, and the compound comprises at least one fluorophore according to general formula (iii) where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c) or general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c).

Embodiments of a kit for detecting an analyte include at least one compound according to any or all of the above embodiments, wherein the compound when combined with a sample comprising the analyte will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound in a sample that does not comprise the analyte. In some embodiments, the sample is a biological fluid. In any or all of the above embodiments, the kit may further include at least one buffer solution in which the compound when combined with a sample comprising the analyte will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound combined with the buffer solution and a sample that does not comprise the analyte.

In any or all of the above embodiments, the analyte may be glutathione, cysteine, homocysteine, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination of succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside and succinyladenosine. In some embodiments, the compound in the kit includes at least one fluorophore according to general formula (vi) as described herein. In some embodiments, the compound in the kit includes at least one fluorophore according to general formula (iii) as described herein where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c) or general formula (iv) as described herein where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c).

In any or all of the above embodiments, the kit may include a color comparison chart for evaluating a color change produced by a reaction between the compound and the analyte. In any or all of the above embodiments, the kit may include a plurality of disposable containers in which a reaction between the compound and the analyte can be performed. In some embodiments, an amount of the compound effective to undergo a detectable change in the absorbance spectrum, the emission spectrum, or both when reacted with the analyte is premeasured into the plurality of disposable containers.

III. FLUOROPHORE-VIOLOGEN CONJUGATES

Disclosed herein are embodiments of fluorophore-viologen conjugates that selectively detect analytes in buffered solutions and/or biological media. Exemplary analytes include thiols (e.g., cysteine (Cys), homocysteine (Hcy) and/or glutathione (GSH)), succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof. Embodiments of the disclosed fluorophore-viologen conjugates include at least one fluorophore moiety conjugated to a bridged viologen. In some embodiments, the fluorophore is capable of producing an emission spectrum having an emission maximum at a wavelength in the near-infrared region. As used herein, the term “bridged viologen” refers to a compound having a central portion comprising two viologen moieties bonded to a common structural element, or bridge, such as a dimethylbenzene ring. Various substituents can be attached to the free ends of the viologen moieties, forming bridged viologen compounds having varied properties. In some embodiments, the conjugates react with an analyte in a buffered solution and/or a biological fluid to form a colored product and/or undergo a change in absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum. Product formation and/or spectral differences can be monitored visually or by spectroscopic methods, e.g., UV-visible or fluorescence spectroscopy. In particular embodiments, a fluorophore-viologen conjugate is selective for one or more of Cys, Hcy, and GSH. In other embodiments, a fluorophore-viologen conjugate is selective for succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof. Selectivity may be demonstrated by formation of a more intensely colored product and/or a different colored product. Selectivity also may be demonstrated by a detectable change in the absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum of a solution containing the bridged viologen and the analyte, or by a detectable change in the absorbance and/or fluorescence emission at one or more wavelengths of the solution containing the fluorophore-viologen conjugate and the analyte. In certain embodiments, temperature and/or buffer composition affects selectivity of a particular fluorophore-viologen conjugate. Determination can be qualitative (e.g., monitoring a visual change in color or by monitoring a change in the absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum before and after reaction) or quantitative (e.g., measuring a change in absorbance or emission at a particular wavelength or wavelengths).

The fluorophore-viologen conjugates have the general formula I, II, or III:

where X is any counteranion, R^(A) and R^(B) are substituents, and at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore based on an annulated xanthene architecture. In some embodiments, each X⁻ independently is a halide or PF₆ ⁻. Of particular interest are fluorophores having an emission spectrum maximum at a wavelength in the near-infrared region, i.e., near-infrared (NIR) fluorophores. In some embodiments, as disclosed herein, R^(A) and R^(B) are the same. However, in other embodiments, R^(A) and R^(B) may be selected independently. Other suitable R^(A) and R^(B) substituents include substituted and unsubstituted aliphatic groups, such as substituted and unsubstituted alkanes, alkenes, or alkynes, aryl or heteroaryl groups comprising one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic rings and/or heteroaromatic rings, particularly lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituents, wherein substituted lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituents include one or more functional groups including hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, nitrile, amide, hydroxyl, carbonyl bearing groups, such as ketone, aldehyde, and carboxyl. In certain embodiments, one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a NIR fluorophore, and the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is a lower alkyl nitrile, lower alkyl substituted phenyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted coumarin (e.g., a coumarin substituted at the 3-position with a lower alkyl or lower alkyl carbonyl group and/or substituted at the 7-position with a lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, amino or substituted amino group), acetal, or carboxylate group. In certain embodiments, the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is

Embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores are NIR dyes based on an annulated xanthene architecture. Some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophores exhibit significant bathochromic shifts and enhanced Stokes shifts compared to structurally related analogues. In some embodiments, the NIR fluorophores are benzannulated xanthenes with single or double annulation. The annulation may be type [a]—down, type [b]—across, or type [c]—up. At least some embodiments of the singly and doubly annulated NIR fluorophores have substantially red-shifted absorbance and emission spectra compared to commercially available NIR fluorophores, i.e., NIR dyes. In some embodiments, the spectra are red shifted by at least 100 nm. In particular, some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophores have an emission maximum greater than 700 nm. In certain embodiments, emission maxima are well into the near-infrared region, e.g., greater than 700 nm, greater than 750 nm, and even greater than 780 nm. In comparison, some known annulated xanthenes have emission maxima near 560 nm (fully benzannulated dibenzofluorescein), 630 nm (SNAFLs), 650 nm (SNARFs), 670 nm (naphthofluorescein), or 650-675 nm (dibenzorhodamines). In some embodiments, the absorption maxima are greater than 600 nm, greater than 650 nm, greater than 675 nm, and even greater than 800 nm.

Some embodiments of the NIR fluorophores also exhibit an enhanced Stokes shift compared to known long-wavelength xanthenes. In certain embodiments, the Stokes shift (difference between absorbance spectrum maximum and the emission spectrum maximum of the same electronic transition) is greater than 50 nm, greater than 80 nm, greater than 100 nm, or greater than 150 nm, such as 50-200 nm, 50-150 nm, 80-150 nm, 90-170 nm, 100-150 nm, or 100-200 nm. A large Stokes shift is advantageous since it facilitates use of relatively broad-band light sources, such as light-emitting diodes, with minimal scattered light interference from the light source at the emission wavelength(s) measured.

A. Fluorophore Structures

In some embodiments, the fluorophores are NIR fluorophores having a structure according to general formula (i).

In general formula (i), each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements; X¹ is O, S, Se, Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, Sn(CH₃)₂, CH₂, C(CH₃)₂, or NH. R¹, R², and R⁴ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, halogen, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

R⁵, R⁷, and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R³ and R⁶ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, oxygen, sulfur, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, cycloalkyl imino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; and at least one of R¹ and R², R² and R³, R³ and R⁴, R⁵ and R⁶, R⁶ and R⁷, and/or R⁷ and R⁸ together form a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl. R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, alkyl, acyl, carboxyl, nitro, amino, alkyl amino, or —SO₃H. R¹³ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond.

At least one of R¹-R¹³ is a linker moiety covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. Suitable linkers include lower alkyl, alkoxy, carboxylate, alkyl carboxylate, amino, and substituted amino groups, as well as polyamino and poly(alkylene oxide) chains. In particular embodiments, R¹³ is the linker and has the formula —COO—. In some embodiments, R⁴ or R⁵ is the linker and is a lower alkyl group (—CH₂—)_(n) where n is an integer from 1 to 10. In other embodiments, the linker is a lower alkyl, alkoxy, carboxylate, alkyl carboxylate, amino, substituted amino, polyamino or poly(alkylene oxide) group on a substituted cycloalkyl or aryl group formed by R¹ and R², R² and R³, R³ and R⁴, R⁵ and R⁶, R⁶ and R⁷, or R⁷ and R⁸.

In some embodiments, R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring as shown in general formula (ii).

In some embodiments, R³ and R⁴ and/or R⁵ and R⁶ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formulas (iii) and (iv).

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements. R¹-R¹⁴ and X¹ are as defined for general formulas (i) and (ii). R¹⁵-R²² independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy, such as lower alkoxy, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above. One of R¹, R², R⁵ (if present), R⁶ (if present), R⁷, R⁸, R⁹-R¹³, R¹⁵-R¹⁸, or R¹⁹-R²² (if present) is a linker moiety covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R¹, R², R⁵, R⁷ and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹⁵, R¹⁷, R²⁰, and R²² independently are hydrogen or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, a linker moiety, or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, lower alkoxy, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ is other than hydrogen; R¹⁹ and R²¹ independently are oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁹ and R²¹ is other than hydrogen. In some embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R¹, R², R⁵, R⁸, R⁹, R¹², R¹⁵, R¹⁷, R²⁰, and R²² independently are hydrogen or a linker moiety; R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; R⁷ is hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R¹⁰ and R¹¹ independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, a linker moiety, or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, lower alkoxy, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ is other than hydrogen; R¹⁹ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety; R²¹ is hydrogen, oxygen, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁹ and R²¹ is other than hydrogen. In particular embodiments, R⁵ or R¹³ is a linker moiety covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. Representative compounds according to general formulas (iii) and (iv) are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Cpd R⁶* R⁷ R¹⁰ R¹¹ R¹³ R¹⁶ R¹⁸ R¹⁹ R²¹  3a O H H H —OCH₃ H —OH — —  3b O H —CH₃ H —CH₃ H —OH — —  3c O H H —COOH H H —OH — —  3d O H H —NH₂ H H —OH — —  3e O H H H —SO₃H H —OH — —  3f O H —SO₃H H —SO₃H H —OH — —  3g O F H H H H —OH — —  3h ═NH H —SO₃H H —SO₃H H —NH₂ — —  3i ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H H —OH — —  3j ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H H —N(CH₃)₂ — —  3k ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H —SO₃H H —SO₃H H —N(CH₃)₂ — —  4a — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ H —OH ═O H  4b — H —SO₃H H —SO₃H H —OH ═O H  4c — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ H —NH₂ ═NH H  4d — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ H —N(CH₃)₂ ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H  4e — H H —COOH H H —OH O H  4f — H H —COOH H H —N(CH₃)₂ ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H  7 — H H H —COO^(†) H —OH —OH H  7a — H H H —COO⁻ H —OH —OH H  7b — H H H —COO⁻ H —O— —OH H  8 — H H H —COOCH₃ H —OH ═O H  8a — H H H —COOCH₃ H —O⁻ ═O H  9 — H H H —COOCH₃ H —OCH₃ ═O H 10 — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ H —OH ═O H 11 — H H —SO₃H —SO₃H H —OH ═O H 14a —OH H H H —COO—^(†) H —OH — — 14b —NH₂ H H H —COO—^(†) H —OH — — 14c —NH₂ H H H —COO—^(†) H —OCH₃ — — 14d —N(CH₃)₂ H H H —COO—^(†) H —OH — — 14e —OCH₃ H H H —COO—^(†) H —OH — — 14f —OH H H H —COO—^(†) H —NH₂ — — 14g —OH H H H —COO—^(†) H —N(CH₃)₂ — — 14h —NH₂ H H H —COO—^(†) H —NH₂ — — 15a ═O H H H —COOCH₃ H —OH — — 15b ═NH₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —OH — — 15c ═NH₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —OCH₃ — — 15d ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —OH — — 15e ═O H H H —COOCH₃ H —NH₂ — — 15f ═O H H H —COOCH₃ H —N(CH₃)₂ — — 15g ═NH₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —NH₂ — — 15h ═O H H H —COOCH₃ H —O⁻ — — 16a ═O H H H —COOCH₃ H —OCH₃ — — 16b ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —OCH₃ — — 19a —OH H H H —COO—^(†) —OH H — — 20a ═O H H H —COOCH₃ —OH H — — 20b ═⁺NH₂ H H H —COOCH₃ —NH₂ H — — 20c ═O H H H —COOCH₃ —O⁻ H — — 20d ═O H H H —COOH —OH H — — 21a ═O H H H —COOH —OH H — — 21b ═O H H H —COO— —O— H — — 22 — H H H —COOCH₃ —OH H H ═O 22a — H H H —COOCH₃ —OH H H ═O 40 — H H H —COOCH₃ H —OH ═O H 41 —N(CH₃)₂ H H H —COO—^(†) H —N(CH₃)₂ — — 42 ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H —COOCH₃ H —N(CH₃)₂ — — 50 ═NH₂ ⁺ H H H —COO⁻ ═NH₂ ⁺ H — — 51 —NHR^(c+) H H H —COO⁻ —NHR^(c+) H — — 52 — H H H —COO⁻ ═NH₂ ⁺ H H ═NH₂ ⁺ 53 — H H H —COO⁻ —NHR^(c+) H H —NHR^(c+) *One R substituent not included in Table 1 is a linker covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the viologen backbone; all other R substituents not included in Table 1 are hydrogen and X¹ is oxygen. †R¹¹ forms a lactone ring.

In some embodiments, R² and R³ and/or R⁶ and R⁷ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formulas (v) and (vi).

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements, and R¹-R²² and X¹ are defined as above. One of R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶ (if present), R⁷ (if present), R⁸-R¹³, R¹⁵-R¹⁸ or R¹⁹-R²² (if present) is a linker moiety covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁷ and R⁸ are independently are hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹⁵, R¹⁷, R¹⁹, and R²² are hydrogen or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, a linker moiety, or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; at least one of R¹⁶, R¹⁷ and R¹⁸ is hydroxyl, oxygen, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety; and at least one of R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety. In some embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸, R⁹, R¹², R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²¹ and R²² are hydrogen or a linker moiety; R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above; R⁷ is hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R¹⁰ and R¹¹ independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, or R¹³ is a linker moiety; R¹⁷ is hydroxyl, oxygen, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety; and R²⁰ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety. In particular embodiments, R¹³ is a linker moiety covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. Representative compounds according to general formulas (v) and (vi) are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Cpd R⁶* R⁷ R¹⁰ R¹¹ R¹³ R¹⁷ R²⁰  2a O H H H —OCH₃ —OH —  2b O H —CH₃ H —CH₃ —OH —  2c O H H —COOH H —OH —  2d O H H —NH₂ H —OH —  2e O H H H —SO₃H —OH —  2f O H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —OH —  2g O F H H H —OH —  2h ═NH H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —NH₂ —  2i ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H —OH —  2j ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H —N(CH₃)₂ —  2k ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —N(CH₃)₂ —  5a — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ —OH ═O  5b — H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —OH ═O  5c — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ —NH₂ ═NH  5d — H —CH₃ H —CH₃ —N(CH₃)₂ ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺  5e — H H —COOH H —OH ═O  5f — H H —COOH H —N(CH₃)₂ ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 24 — H H H —CH(OH)O—† —OH —NH₂ 34a — H H —COOH —CH₃ —OH ═O 34b — H H H —COOH —OH ═O 34c — H H —COOH —CH₃ —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 34d — H H H —COOH —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 43 — H H H —COO—† —OH ═NH 44 — H H H —COO—† —NH₂ ═NH 45 — H H H —COOH —OH ═NH 46 — H H H —COOH —NH₂ ═NH *One R substituent not included in Table 2 is a linker covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the viologen backbone; all other R substituents not included in Table 2 are hydrogen and X¹ is oxygen. †R¹¹ forms a ring.

In some embodiments, R¹ and R² and/or R⁷ and R⁸ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formulas (vii) and (viii).

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements. R³-R¹⁸ and X¹ in general formula (vii) are defined as above. R³-R⁵, R⁹-R²², and X¹ in general formula (viii) are defined as above, and R⁶ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, halogen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above. One of R³-R⁶, R⁷ (if present), R⁸ (if present), R⁹-R¹³, R¹⁵-R¹⁸, or R¹⁹-R²² (if present) is a linker moiety covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R³, R⁴, R⁵ independently are hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R⁷ and R⁸, if present, independently are hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R⁹-R¹²-independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹⁵, R¹⁷, R¹⁹, and R²² independently are hydrogen, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, a linker moiety, or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; at least one of R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ is hydroxyl, oxygen, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety; at least one of R¹⁹, R²⁰ and R²¹ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety; in general formula (vii), R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, and in general formula (viii), R⁶ is hydrogen or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above. In particular embodiments, X¹ is oxygen, R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸ (if present), R⁹, R¹², R¹⁵, R¹⁷, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²⁰, and R²² independently are hydrogen, or a linker moiety; R⁷ (if present) is hydrogen, halogen, or a linker moiety; R¹⁰ and R¹¹ independently are hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, or a linker moiety; R¹⁶ is hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, or a linker moiety; R²¹ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or a linker moiety; R⁶ is oxygen, imino, iminium, lower alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above in general formula (vii), or R⁶ is hydrogen or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above in general formula (viii). In particular embodiments, R¹³ is a linker moiety covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. Representative compounds according to general formulas (vii) and (viii) are shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Cpd R⁶* R⁷ R¹⁰ R¹¹ R¹³ R¹⁶ R¹⁸ R¹⁹ R²¹  1a O H H H —OCH₃ —OH H — —  1b O H —CH₃ H —CH₃ —OH H — —  1c O H H —COOH H —OH H — —  1d O H H —NH₂ H —OH H — —  1e O H H H —SO₃H —OH H — —  1f O H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —OH H — —  1g O F H H H —OH H — —  1h ═NH H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —NH₂ H — —  1i ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H —OH H — —  1j ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H H H —N(CH₃)₂ H — —  1k ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H —SO₃H H —SO₃H —N(CH₃)₂ H — —  6a H — —CH₃ H —CH₃ —OH H H ═O  6b H — —SO₃H H —SO₃H —OH H H ═O  6c H — —CH₃ H —CH₃ —NH₂ H H ═NH  6d H — —CH₃ H —CH₃ —N(CH₃)₂ H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺  6e H — H —COOH H —OH H H ═O  6f H — H —COOH H —N(CH₃)₂ H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 36a H — H —COOH —CH₃ H —OH ═O H 36b H — H H —COOH H —OH ═O H 36c H — H —COOH —CH₃ H —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H 36d H — H H —COOH H —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H *One R substituent not included in Table 3 is a linker covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the viologen backbone; all other R substituents not included in Table 3 are hydrogen and X¹ is oxygen.

In some embodiments, the NIR fluorophores have mixed annulation, e.g., type [a] and type [c], type [a] and type [b], or type [b] and type [c]. For example, in some embodiments, R³ and R⁴ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring and R⁷ and R⁸ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formula (ix). In other embodiments, R³ and R⁴ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring and R⁶ and R⁷ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formula (x). In still other embodiments, R¹ and R² together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring and R⁶ and R⁷ together form an aryl or substituted aryl ring as shown in general formula (xi).

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements. R¹-R⁵, R⁷-R²² and X¹ in general formulas (ix)-(xi) are defined as above, and R⁶ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, halogen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above. One of R¹-R⁴ (if present), R⁵, R⁶, R⁸ (if present), R⁹-R¹³, or R¹⁵-R²² is a linker moiety covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. In certain embodiments, X¹ is oxygen; R¹-R⁶ (if present), R⁸ (if present), R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹², R¹⁵, R¹⁷ and R²² are independently are hydrogen, or a linker moiety; R¹¹ is hydrogen, amino, lower alkyl, carboxyl, —SO₃H, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H, —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or a linker moiety, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; R¹⁶, R¹⁷, and R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, lower alkoxy, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ is other than hydrogen; R¹⁹-R²¹ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, alkyl amino, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁹-R²¹ is other than hydrogen. In particular embodiments, X¹ is oxygen; R¹-R⁶ (if present), R⁸ (if present) R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹², R¹⁵, R¹⁷, and R²² independently are hydrogen or a linker moiety; R¹¹ is hydrogen, carboxyl, or a linker moiety; R¹³ is lower alkyl, carboxyl, or a linker moiety; R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁶ and R¹⁸ is other than hydrogen; R¹⁹-R²¹ independently are hydrogen, oxygen, alkyl iminium, —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above, or a linker moiety, and at least one of R¹⁹-R²¹ is other than hydrogen. In particular embodiments, R⁵ or R¹³ is a linker moiety covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone. Representative compounds according to general formulas (ix)-(xi) are shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Cpd R¹¹* R¹³ R¹⁶ R¹⁸ R¹⁹ R²⁰ R²¹ 33a —COOH —CH₃ H —OH H H ═O 33b H —COOH H —OH H H ═O 33c —COOH —CH₃ H —OH H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 33d H —COOH H —OH H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ 35a —COOH —CH₃ H —OH ═O H H 35b H —COOH H —OH ═O H H 35c —COOH —CH₃ H —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H 35d H —COOH H —OH ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H 37a —COOH —CH₃ H —OH H ═O H 37b H —COOH H —OH H ═O H 37c —COOH —CH₃ H —OH H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H 37d H —COOH H —OH H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H 38a —COOH —CH₃ —OH H H ═O H 38b H —COOH —OH H H ═O H 38c —COOH —CH₃ —OH H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H 38d H —COOH —OH H H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H 39a —COOH —CH₃ —OH H ═O H H 39b H —COOH —OH H ═O H H 39c —COOH —CH₃ —OH H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H 39d H —COOH —OH H ═N(CH₃)₂ ⁺ H H *One R substituent not included in Table 4 is a linker covalently binding the NIR fluorophore to the viologen backbone; all other R substituents not included in Table 4 are hydrogen and X¹ is oxygen.

B. Structural Effects on Spectra and Stokes Shifts

Systematic structure-based evaluation surprisingly demonstrated that shifting the position of a substituent on the annulated ring of a singly annulated xanthene substantially red-shifted the emission and absorption maxima. For example, in some embodiments as shown in FIG. 2, type [c] annulated xanthenes according to general formula (iii) may include substituents at the 3-position of the annulated ring (R¹⁶) or at the 1-position (R¹⁸). In working embodiments, positioning the substituent at the 1-position (R¹⁸) instead of the 3-position (R¹⁶) in general formula (iii) and (iv) was found to red-shift the absorbance spectrum by more than 10 nm, typically by more than 30 nm or more than 50 nm, such as by 10-200 nm, 10-60 nm, 30-75 nm, 50-75 nm, 30-100 nm, or 75-200 nm. In some embodiments, the 3-1 transposition red-shifted the emission spectrum by at least 100 nm, such as by 100-200 nm, 120-160 nm, or 130-150 nm. In certain embodiments, when the substituent was at the 1-position (R¹⁸ in general formulas (iii) and (iv)), the emission maximum occurred at greater than 725 nm, greater than 750 nm, or greater than 770 nm. In some instances, the emission maxima were not measurable, but are believed to occur at greater than 850 nm (beyond the range of the instrument). Simultaneous enhancement of the Stokes shift also was noted. In some embodiments, the 3-1 transposition increased the magnitude of the Stokes shift by greater than 50 nm, such as by 50-100 nm, 70-90 nm, or 70-100 nm.

Thus, the 3-1 transposition provides several advantages. Both absorbance and emission maxima are red-shifted. Because the emission spectra typically have a greater red shift than the absorbance spectra, the Stokes shift is enhanced. This behavior occurs across symmetric (e.g., general formula (iv)) and asymmetric structures (e.g., general formula (iii)), and was observed across various ionizable groups (e.g., hydroxyl and amine functionalities). In some embodiments, combining the 3-1 transposition with transposition of ionizable functionalities also provides an unexpected pH response. Some rhodols absorb and emit long wavelengths at high pH. However, with some embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores that combine a 3-1 transposition with ionizable moiety transposition, long wavelength behavior was observed at acidic pH values.

In some embodiments, anionic forms of the fluorophores having a 3-1 transposition produce a greater red shift than the corresponding neutral forms of the fluorophores. For example, the absorbance maximum of compound 15a is red-shifted 15 nm compared to compound 20a. However, the absorbance maximum of compound 15h, the anionic form of compound 15a, has a red-shift of 50 nm compared to compound 20c, the anionic form of compound 20a. FIG. 32 is a series of UV-visible spectra illustrating the effect of ionization on the absorption spectra of some embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores. The bathochromic shift in emission wavelengths for compound 15h compared to compound 20c was 130 nm. The differences between these shifts results in NIR emission at 760 nm with a significantly enhanced Stokes shift of 160 nm.

There are through-space polar interactions between R¹⁸ and the internal bridge oxygen in compounds according to general formulas (iii), (ix), and (x). The field effect is further enhanced in the case of symmetric compounds, such as those according to general formula (iv) when R¹⁹ is oxygen. A unique intramolecular hydrogen-bonding network also is present in such compounds, e.g., compound 8 (FIG. 33). This network produces enhanced negative charge density on the ionizable oxygen atoms, thereby promoting a relatively large bathochromic shift. Molecular simulations demonstrate that the hydrogen bonding network also enhances coplanarity of the fused ring system, which is diminished when the hydroxyl group is deprotonated (FIG. 34). The hydrogen bonding can be seen in compounds such as compound 8 by ¹H NMR spectroscopy. A redistribution of the electronic density around the hydrogen atom occurs upon hydrogen bond formation between the hydroxyl proton, the carbonyl, and the central oxygen of compound 8. In compound 8, simulations show that the total hydrogen bond distance O- - -H—O between the carbonyl at R¹⁹ and the hydroxyl at R¹⁸ is 2.52 Å, which is lower than the typical hydrogen bonding distance (≧2.8 Å) and close to the distance observed for low-barrier hydrogen bonds (2.55 Å). Evidence of hydrogen bonding was also seen in compound 15a, but to a lesser degree. In compound 15a, the total hydrogen bond distance O- - -H—O between the hydroxyl at the R¹⁸ position and the xanthene central oxygen is 2.95 Å, which falls in range of common hydrogen bonds. Removal of the shared proton in compound 8 to produce compound 8a did not result in a large bathochromic shift in the absorption maximum as was observed when compound 22 was deprotonated to compound 22a, thus providing further evidence of the effect of the hydrogen-bonding network on the characteristics of compounds such as 8. Surprisingly, when compound 10 was deprotonated, the shift was hypsochromic.

In some embodiments, e.g., compound 8, NIR fluorescence was observed in compounds exhibiting hydrogen bonding up to pH 9, while removal of the shared proton was observed to quench the fluorescence. Notably, compound 7 exists as its corresponding colorless lactone in 1:9 DMSO:buffer below physiological pH of 7.4, and thus embodies a unique pH probe.

Some embodiments of fluorophores having a chemical structure according to general formula (iii) or (iv) have longer absorption and emission wavelengths than rhodamine. Analogues having an —NHR^(c) (boronic acid) substituent at R¹⁶ and R⁶ (formula (iii)) or R²¹ (formula (iv)) are further red-shifted that the corresponding fluorophores having an —NH₂ at R¹⁶ and R⁶/R²¹. In the absence of sugars, the boronic acids may be quenched through a PET (photoinduced electron transfer) mechanism. In certain embodiments, bathochromic shifts and increased quantum yields were observed for both asymmetric (formula (iii)) and symmetric (formula (iv)) bis-boronic acid analogues upon sugar binding.

In some embodiments, a fluorophore according to general formula (i) is conjugated to a bridged viologen backbone via its lower benzene ring. Such conjugation can be achieved by conjugating a fluorophore including a lactone ring (i.e., R¹³=—COO—) to the viologen backbone, whereby the lactone ring opens and forms an ester bond with the viologen backbone.

In this geometry, the lower benzene ring can act as a spacer and facilitate intramolecular π-π interactions between the conjugated system of the xanthene and the bipyridine moiety. When the fluorophore is conjugated to the viologen, these π-π interactions quench the fluorophore's fluorescence. In some embodiments, the presence of an analyte disrupts these π-π interactions, and restores fluorescence of the fluorophore.

In other embodiments, a fluorophore according to general formula (i) is conjugated to the viologen backbone via one of its upper xanthene rings. In the example below, R⁵ is a linker as defined above and the fluorophore is conjugated at its R⁵ position to the viologen backbone.

It is hypothesized that a supramolecular assembly-type mechanism may be involved in the absorbance and/or emission (fluorescence) spectrum changes observed between the reaction of an analyte (e.g., glutathione) and certain embodiments of the bridged viologens in solution. In some embodiments, a fluorophore conjugated to the bridged viologen backbone loses its fluorescence capability. It is thought that the viologen may accept electrons from the fluorophore, thereby quenching the fluorescence. For example, FIG. 3 illustrates the energy-minimized structures of ortho-, meta-, and para-bis coumarin analogues. Each structure demonstrates π-π stacking between the two coumarin moieties. However, only the para-structure forms a cavity into which a glutathione molecule may fit. FIG. 4 illustrates a potential supramolecular assembly formed with GSH and the p-bis coumarin analogue. It is anticipated that insertion of the GSH into the cavity will disrupt the π-π stacking. Furthermore, as the bridged viologen analogue folds around the GSH molecule, regions of negative charge in the GSH molecule may align with positive charge centers in the fluorophore moieties, thereby restoring the fluorescence capability of the coumarin moieties via a charge transfer mechanism. Similar behavior is expected with certain embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores having structures according to general formulas (i)-(xi). In some embodiments, R^(A) and R^(B) are both fluorophores, and the two fluorophores may have the same chemical structure or different chemical structures. In other embodiments, one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore and the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is a substituted and unsubstituted aliphatic group, such as a substituted and unsubstituted alkane, alkene, or alkyne, aryl or heteroaryl group comprising one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic rings and/or heteroaromatic rings, particularly a lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituent, wherein substituted a lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituent includes one or more functional groups including hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, nitrile, amide, hydroxyl, carbonyl bearing groups, such as ketone, aldehyde, and carboxyl.

IV. SYNTHESIS

Some embodiments of naphthofluorescein analogues having a chemical structure according to general formula (iv) are synthesized as shown in Scheme 1 (FIG. 5). In some embodiments, analogues are synthesized by acid condensation of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene and phthalic acid in methanesulfonic acid to produce a lactone-containing compound (compound 7). Reacting compound 7 with acetyl chloride in methanol opens the lactone ring, thereby esterifying the compound and producing the methyl carboxylate 8; one of the hydroxyl groups is converted to an oxygen through electronic density redistribution in the conjugated system. Further reaction of compound 8 with potassium carbonate and methyl iodide in dimethyl formamide converts the remaining hydroxyl group to a methoxy group (compound 9). In other embodiments, analogues according to general formula (iv) are synthesized by acid condensation of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene with a desired aldehyde in phosphoric acid to produce analogues having structures according to representative compounds 10 and 11. In some embodiments, compounds 10 and 11 further are reacted with potassium carbonate and methyl iodide to produce methyl analogues.

Analogues having a chemical structure according to general formula (iii) are synthesized by acid condensation as shown in Scheme 2 (FIG. 6). A hydroxybenzophenone derivative (compound 12) and a 1,8-naphthalene derivative (compound 13) are condensed by reaction in a 1:1 mixture of methanesulfonic acid and trifluoroacetic acid to produce a lactone-containing compound (compound 14). Further reaction of compound 14 with methanol in sulfuric acid opens the lactone ring, thereby esterifying the compound and producing the methyl ester (compound 15); compound 14 is converted to compound 15 via electronic redistribution in the conjugated system. Alternatively, reacting compound 14 with potassium carbonate and methyl iodide opens the ring and produces compound 16.

Certain asymmetric seminaphthofluorescein and rhodamine analogues having a chemical structure according to general formula (iii) are synthesized as shown in Scheme 3 (FIG. 7). A hydroxybenzophenone derivative (compound 17) and a naphthol derivative (compound 18) are reacted via acid condensation in methanesulfonic acid/trifluoroacetic acid to produce a lactone-containing compound, compound 19. Further reaction of compound 19 with methanol in sulfuric acid produces compound 20.

A commercially available, lactone-containing naphthofluorescein analogue was converted to its methyl ester via Fischer esterification as shown in Scheme 4 (FIG. 8). The naphthofluorescein analogue (compound 21) is dissolved in methanol. Sulfuric acid is added, and the mixture is refluxed for 24 hours to produce compound 22.

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (vi) and some asymmetric, extended-conjugation analogues having chemical structures according to general formulas (viii)-(xi) are synthesized as shown in Scheme 5 (FIG. 9). The method shown in Scheme 5 involves the formation of tertiary carbinol leuco bases via a Grignard reaction, followed by deprotection and condensation with BBr₃ to produce the corresponding xanthene dyes. Ketone precursors can be synthesized by reaction of the corresponding methoxy-naphthalenes with benzoyl chlorides or phthalic anhydride in the presence of polyphosphoric acid (Gorelick et al., Zhurnal Org. Kihimii, 1983, 19, 199-206).

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (v) and (vii) are synthesized as shown in Scheme 6 (FIG. 10). A hydroxybenzophenone derivative is synthesized and condensed with a 1,8-naphthalene derivative in a 1:1 mixture of methanesulfonic acid and trifluoroacetic acid to produce a mixture of lactone-containing compounds. The lactone rings can be opened, if desired, by reacting the compounds with methanol in sulfuric acid, or by reacting the compounds with potassium carbonate and methyl iodide to produce methyl ester derivatives.

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (i) where X¹ is Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, or Sn(CH₃)₂ may be synthesized according to Scheme 7 (FIG. 11). With respect to Scheme 7, R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, and R⁸ are as previously defined, with the proviso that none of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, or R⁸ is —NH₂. In step (a), a dilithium intermediate may be generated from a bis(2-bromophenyl)methane derivative by halogen-metal exchange reaction, quenched with the appropriate dialkyl dichloride of silicon, germanium, or tin, and oxidized to form a xanthene. In step (b), a phenyl lithium derivative may be inserted to produce a rhodol or rhodamine-type structure. See, e.g., Koide et al., ACS Chem. Biol. 2011, 6(6), 600-608.

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (i) where X¹ is S or Se may be synthesized according to Scheme 8 (FIG. 12). With respect to Scheme 8, R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, and R⁸ are as previously defined, with the proviso that none of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, or R⁸ is —NH₂ or halo. A sulfur analogue may be synthesized by preparing 3-iodoanisole from m-anisidine via its diazonium chloride, and separately preparing 3-methoxythiophenol sodium salt by reaction of sodium ethoxide with a corresponding thiophenol. Heating 3-iodoanisole and 3-methoxythiophenol sodium salt with powdery copper produces 1,1′-thiobis(3-methoxybenzene, which is converted to m,m′-thiodiphenol by ether cleavage with hydrogen iodide in acetic acid. A rhodol analogue may then be prepared by melting m,m′-thiodiphenol with phthalic anhydride in the presence of zinc chloride (path a), or by melting with 2-sulfobenzoic acid cyclic anhydride and toluene-4-sulfonic acid (path b) to produce the sulfobenzoic acid analogue shown in FIG. 12. See, e.g., Pfoertner, J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1991, 523-526.

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (iii) where R⁶ and R¹⁶ are amino or boronic acid are synthesized according to Scheme 9 (FIG. 13). A rhodamine is hydrolyzed under basic conditions, followed by acid condensation with an aminohydroxynaphthalene to produce a seminaphthorhodamine. Reductive amination produces the corresponding bis-boronic acid.

Some analogues having chemical structures according to general formula (iv) where R¹⁶ and R²¹ are amino or boronic acid are synthesized according to Scheme 10 (FIG. 14). A naphthorhodamine is prepared by acid-promoted condensation of phthalic anhydride and an aminohydroxynaphthalene. Reductive amination produces the corresponding bis-boronic acid.

In some embodiments, a fluorophore is conjugated to a para-bridged viologen as shown in Scheme 11 (FIG. 15). Bipyridine and p-bis-(bromomethyl)benzene are combined in acetonitrile and refluxed to form a para-bridged viologen. The viologen then is reacted with ammonium hexafluorophosphate to produce a viologen hexafluorophosphate salt. The hexafluorophosphate salt reacts with 1,3-dibromopropane, which attaches to the terminal ends of the bridged viologen and functions as a linker for the fluorophores. A fluorophore according to general formula (ii) (i.e., containing a lactone ring) is combined with the linker-containing bridged viologen and heated. The reaction opens the lactone ring, and a fluorophore molecule is conjugated via its lower ring to each linker, thereby forming a bridged viologen having two fluorophore moieties. Ortho- and meta-bridged viologens can be synthesized similarly using o- or m-bis-(bromomethyl)benzene, respectively, in place of p-bis-(bromomethyl)benzene.

In certain embodiments, a fluorophore can be conjugated to a bridged viologen via an R group on one of its rings using alkylation chemistry as shown in Scheme 12 (FIG. 16).

In certain embodiments, the R groups, R^(A) and R^(B), on either end of the bridged viologen backbone may be different from one another. For example, a combination of fluorophores may be conjugated to the viologen backbone. Alternatively, a fluorophore and a second moiety other than a fluorophore may be conjugated to the viologen backbone. Other suitable moieties include, e.g., substituted and unsubstituted aliphatic groups, such as substituted and unsubstituted alkanes, alkenes, or alkynes, aryl or heteroaryl groups comprising one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic rings and/or heteroaromatic rings, particularly lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituents, wherein substituted lower aliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl substituents include one or more functional groups including hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, nitrile, amide, hydroxyl, and carbonyl bearing groups, such as ketone, aldehyde, and carboxyl. In the representative embodiments shown below, a fluorophore according to general formula (iii) (e.g., compound 3i (or 15d) or compound 15b) is conjugated to one end of the bridged viologen backbone and an acetonitrile moiety is conjugated to the other end of the bridged viologen backbone.

In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to reduce the fluorophore pKa and/or to increase aqueous solubility of the fluorophores. In certain embodiments, pKa may be reduced by halogenating the fluorophore, such as by position one or more fluorine atoms ortho to one or more ionizable moieties such that a majority of the fluorophore molecules are in an ionic form in a neutral aqueous solution. The inventors have discovered that ionized species of the disclosed fluorophores generally have a larger Stokes shift than neutral fluorophore molecules. Embodiments of the fluorophores may be fluorinated by using a fluorinated naphthol during the synthesis, i.e., during the condensation reaction. Fluorinated naphthols may be synthesized by reacting hydroxynaphthalenes with a fluorine donor (e.g., Selectfluor® (1-chloromethyl-4-fluoro-1,4-diazoniabicyclo[2.2.2]octane bis(tetrafluoroborate)) in methyl cyanide at reflux as described in the literature (Yang et al., Heteroatom Chem., 1998, 9, 229-239; Bluck et al., J. Fluor. Chem., 2004, 125, 1873-1877).

In some embodiments, it also may be advantageous to reduce non-specific binding in biological media. To reduce non-specific binding, oligopegylated derivatives of the disclosed fluorophores can be prepared by conjugating the fluorophore to an oligoethylene glycol. If bi-functional pegylating reagents are used, the fluorophore may further be conjugated to other biological molecules of interest. Suitable bi-functional pegylating reagents comprising 6-8 ethylene glycol units are commercially available or can be prepared using literature protocols (Svedhem et al., J. Org. Chem., 2001, 66, 4494-4503; Wosnick et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2005, 127, 3400-3405). Pegylated reagents can be conjugated via amide bond formation to embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores that comprise a carboxylic group. Pegylation also may increase solubility of fluorophores having hydrophobic properties.

V. APPLICATIONS

Some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates are suitable for use in challenging biological media such as blood, plasma, and urine. Blood has strong background absorption, significant autofluorescence, and scatter in the visible region. Certain embodiments of the disclosed conjugates have emission spectra maxima at wavelengths that are long enough to overcome interference from blood hemoglobin, e.g., an emission spectrum maximum at greater than 640 nm, or greater than 680 nm. In particular embodiments, the disclosed conjugates also have an absorbance spectrum maximum that is greater than 640 nm, such as greater than 680 nm. In such embodiments, a light source having a wavelength greater than 640 nm can be utilized, thereby minimizing light absorption by blood. NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates that function beyond the optical range of blood will simplify testing for analytes and biomarkers by limiting dilution and sample preparation/handling, thereby reducing sources of error, reducing time to obtain results, and/or reducing health hazards due to sample handling and manipulation. Current methods and detection agents utilize chromatography, fragile materials (e.g., those that are unstable in aqueous solution, require storage below −20° C. and/or require storage in the dark), and/or a high degree of sample processing. For example, in current methods, samples may be diluted more than 1000-fold to overcome optical interference from blood, or testing may be performed in plasma instead of whole blood. In contrast, some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates are stable for weeks at ambient temperature, even in solution. Certain embodiments of the disclosed conjugates also are more photostable in cell culture media than fluorescein. Thus, it is anticipated that embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates may be useful for detecting analytes in bodily fluids.

In some embodiments, the near-infrared fluorophore includes a 5-membered lactone ring (i.e., general formula (ii)), which can be coupled to a bridged viologen via the oxygen atom in the 5-membered ring (see also Scheme 11 (FIG. 15), Example 2, and FIGS. 17-19).

The 5-membered ring can be opened to form a carboxylate group (—COO⁻), which can be coupled to a bridged viologen.

The absorbance and fluorescence spectra of the fluorophore typically are pH dependent. For example, the absorbance maximum for one ester derivative (compound 15d) in 0.1M NaOH is 620 nm and the emission maximum in same solvent is 770 nm. The Stokes shift in this solvent is 150 nm (3142 cm⁻¹).

Certain embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates include functional groups that may facilitate detection of specific molecular biomarkers. Embodiments of the NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates may be functionalized to (a) produce a desired geometry having a combination of covalent and/or supramolecular interactions between the fluorophore and a desired biomarker and/or (b) to alter oxidation-reduction and/or energy transfer properties in the presence of a desired biomarker. For instance, molecular modeling indicates that some embodiments of the NIR fluorophores having a chemical structure according to general formula (vi) and polar end groups such as amino, oxygen, and/or hydroxyl groups at positions R¹⁷ and R²⁰ may exhibit favorable electrostatic interactions with the polar ends of glutathione (FIG. 20). Molecular modeling also indicates that some embodiments of the NIR fluorophores having a chemical structure according to general formula (vi) wherein at least one of R¹⁷ and R²⁰ is —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

may preferentially interact with specific nucleosides (FIG. 21). In certain embodiments, specificity may be enhanced when R¹³ comprises a carboxylate moiety.

Biomarkers of interest include glutathione (GSH), which is diminished in whole blood, leukocytes and plasma in mitochondrial disorders (e.g., diabetes, atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, autism, retinopathy of prematurity, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia, and cancer (Akturi et al., PNAS U.S.A., 2009, 106, 3941-3945)) and organic acidemias (e.g., methylmalonic acidemia). Some commercially available methods for detecting GSH utilize detection agents that are not selective for GSH over other thiols (e.g., cysteine, dithiothreitol) and/or require testing in plasma. However, GSH levels in whole blood are in the millimolar range, or 100-1000 fold higher than in plasma.

Some embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates may be suitable for selective detection of GSH in blood. For example, molecular modeling shows that compound 5a (Table 2) has very favorable structural interactions with GSH. Additionally, compound 5a was found to be detectable in a 5% blood solution (see Example 3). Embodiments of NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates functionalized to promote multipoint, glutathione-selective covalent, supramolecular and/or redox interactions may serve as indicators for oxidative stress and mitochondrial disorders.

Rhodamine B lactol has GSH selectivity, which is thought to arise from reaction with the aldehyde tautomer, thereby affording the observed emission and absorbance increases.

It is believed that the equilibrium favors the thiohemiacetal in the case of GSH due, at least in part, to favorable electrostatic interactions between the polar groups of the fluorophore (which actually modulate the ionization state and optical properties) and those of the GSH tripeptide. In order to understand potential salt bridge formation and ion pairing, the covalent complexes formed in the reaction of fluorophores such as compound 24 were simulated, demonstrating that the relatively extended GSH moiety can interact with the polar ends of the fluorophores simultaneously (FIG. 20).

Other biomarkers of interest include succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside (SAICA-riboside) and succinyladenosine (S-Ado), which are indicators of adenylosuccinate lyase (ADSL) deficiency.

ADSL deficiency is a rare (approximately 1 in 200,000) inborn error of purine metabolism, which can result in mental retardation and seizure (Jaeken, Lancet, 1984, 2, 1058-1061). Undiagnosed genetic defects in purine and pyrimidine (PP) metabolism may result in early death and/or institutionalization. ADSL deficiency is characterized by massive urinary excretion (millimolar levels) of SAICA-riboside and S-Ado, the nucleosides corresponding to SAICA-ribotide (SAICAr) and adenylosuccinate.

Embodiments of the disclosed fluorophore-viologen conjugates functionalized with covalent and supramolecular binding sites targeted for specific nucleosides may serve as indicators for ADLS deficiency. In some embodiments, the fluorophore viologen conjugate includes at least one boronic acid functional group, i.e., at least one R group is —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

A rhodamine modified with a phenyl boronic acid can exhibit unprecedented affinity for ribose and congeners as compared to fructose (Jiang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2006, 128, 12221-12228).

Computer-assisted molecular simulations indicate that, apart from the preference of the boronic acid to react with the 2,3-cis diol of the furanose form of ribose and the strong electrostatic interaction B- - -O- - -H—N⁺, non-covalent secondary interactions play an important role modifying the ionization state of the chromophore. FIG. 21 illustrates the charged H-bonding that can occur between the nucleosides and the carboxylate moiety of two embodiments (compounds 43 and 44, Table 2) of fluorophores having chemical structures according to general formula (vi). Energy-minimized models in FIG. 21 were prepared using simulated annealing (sequential cycles of heating/cooling) using Sybyl™ X 1.1 (Tripos, St. Louis, Mo.) and geometry optimization with MOPAC2009 (Stewart Computational Chemistry, Colorado Springs, Colo.). Interaction with the carboxylate moiety appears to play a significant role in the interactions with S-Ado and SAICAr since esterification of the carboxylate moiety in the rhodamine bis-boronic acid causes its selectivity to revert to fructose.

In some instances, if evaluation in biological media is unsatisfactory, a molecule-imprinted polymer (MIP) specific to a particular analyte may be synthesized and utilized in a solid-phase extraction step prior to evaluation with embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates. The MIP will allow capture and concentration of the analyte. Excellent synergism may be achieved as any deficiency in selectivity by the fluorophore-viologen conjugates and/or the MIP may compensate for the other component.

VI. KITS

Kits are also a feature of this disclosure. Embodiments of the kits include at least one compound according to any one of general formulas I-III and suitable for selectively detecting an analyte in a sample (e.g., a biological fluid such as blood or urine). In some embodiments, the kits also include at least one buffer solution in which the compound, when combined with a sample including, or suspected of including, an analyte, will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound in the buffer solution combined with a sample that does not include the analyte. The kits may include a color comparison chart for evaluating a color change produced by a reaction between the compound and the analyte. The kits also may include one or more containers, such as a disposable test tube or cuvette, in which the detection can be performed. The kits may further include instructions for performing the detection. In some embodiments, the kits include control samples of analytes, e.g., glutathione, cysteine, homocysteine, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, and/or succinyladenosine. Typically the control samples are provided in solid form.

In some embodiments of the kits, the compound is provided as a solid, and the buffer is provided in liquid form. The buffer may be provided at a concentration suitable for detecting Cys, Hcy, GSH, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine or a mixture thereof. Alternatively, the buffer may be provided as a concentrated solution, which is subsequently diluted prior to use. In certain embodiments, the compound may be premeasured into one or more containers (e.g., test tubes or cuvettes), and the detection is subsequently performed by adding the buffer and test sample to the container.

VII. EXAMPLES Reagents and General Procedures

Chemistry.

Unless otherwise indicated, all commercially available starting materials were used directly without further purification. Naphthofluorescein was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. Silica gel (Sorbent Technologies) 32-63 μm was used for flash column chromatography. ¹H-NMR was obtained on an ARX-400 Advance Bruker spectrometer. Chemical shifts (δ) are given in ppm relative to d₆-DMSO (2.50 ppm, ¹H, 39.52 ¹³C) unless otherwise indicated. MS (HRMS, ESI) spectra were obtained at the Portland State University Bioanalytical Mass Spectrometry Facility on a ThermoElectron LTQ-Orbitrap high resolution mass spectrometer with a dedicated Accela HPLC system.

General Acid Condensation Using Methanesulfonic Acid.

Dihydroxynaphtahlene (3.12 mmol) and phthalic anhydride (1.56 mmol) are dissolved in 3 mL of methanesulfonic acid. The mixture is stirred at 90° C. for 24 h. The mixture is allowed to cool down to room temperature, then poured into distilled water (50 mL). The precipitate is filtered and washed with water (3×50 mL). If no precipitate is formed, the mixture is neutralized to pH 5-7 by portion-wise addition of solid NaHCO₃. The precipitate is dried under vacuum. The target compound is isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel.

General Condensation Method Using CH₃SO₃H:TFA 1:1 Mixture.

Hydroxybenzophenone (918 μmol) and 1,8-naphthalene derivative (1380 μmol) are dissolved in 1.5 mL of methanesulfonic acid, then 1.5 mL of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) are added. The mixture is heated and stirred at 80° C. for 16-24 hours. The reaction mixture is allowed to warm to room temperature, and then poured into 50 mL of deionized (DI) water. The mixture is neutralized to pH 6-7 by portion-wise addition of solid NaHCO₃. The resulting precipitate is filtered, washed with DI water and air dried. The target compound is isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel.

General Esterification Method A.

Carboxylate (0.243 μmol) is dissolved in 2 mL of methanol (MeOH). To this solution is added concentrated H₂SO₄ (100 μL) dropwise, then the mixture is refluxed 24 h. The mixture is allowed to cool down to room temperature, then poured into 50 mL of ice water and 200 mg of NaHCO₃ is added in one portion. If a precipitate forms, the solid is filtered and washed with 2% NaHCO₃ (2×10 mL), then with water (2×10 mL). If no precipitate is obtained, the neutralized aqueous phase is extracted with CHCl₃ (3×50 mL). The organic phase is dried over Na₂SO₄ and the solvent evaporated under vacuum. The target compound is then isolated by flash column chromatography.

General Esterification Method B.

Under an argon atmosphere, the compound (0.131 mmol) is dissolved in 25 mL of anhydrous methanol. The solution is cooled to 0° C. in an ice bath. Acetyl chloride (750 μL) is added dropwise. The mixture is stirred and kept at 50° C. for 48 hours. Acetyl chloride (300 μL) is added dropwise, and the mixture kept at 50° C. for additional 24 hours. The mixture is allowed to cool down to room temperature, and the solvent is evaporated under vacuum.

Example 1 Syntheses and Characterization of Near-Infrared Fluorophores

As shown in Scheme 1 (FIG. 5), the analogues having a structure according to general formula IV were synthesized either via acid condensation of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene and phthalic anhydride in methanesulfonic acid or by condensation of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene with the corresponding aldehydes in 85% H₃PO₄ at 125° C./24 h. The naphthofluorescein methyl ester 22 was obtained via a typical Fischer esterification protocol from 21 (Scheme 4). Asymmetric seminaphthofluorescein, rhodol and rhodamine analogues according to general formula III (Schemes 2 and 3) were synthesized by acid condensation of hydroxybenzophenones with the corresponding naphthols in a mixture of CH₃SO₃H:TFA 1:1 at 80° C. for 16-24 h. The hydroxybenzophenones and 1,8-naphthalene derivatives required were synthesized according to described or modified literature protocols. The methyl ester derivatives were obtained by esterification in MeOH catalyzed by either H₂SO₄ or HCl; further methyl alkylation was furnished by treatment of either the carboxylate or methyl ester intermediate with methyl iodide in the presence of K₂CO₃ in dimethylformamide. In general, overall good yields were obtained for most of the compounds included in this series with the exception of the condensation products between dihydroxy-benzophenone and 8-amino naphthol derivatives, where the major isolated product corresponds to fluorescein. All compounds were isolated by flash column chromatography (normal or reversed phase) and characterized by NMR and MS. The structure of compound 14a (FIG. 22) was confirmed by X-ray single crystal structure.

Compounds 21 and 7 (Type [c] Fully Annulated Naphthofluorescein with Known Regiochemistry Versus Fully Annulated Type [c] Naphthofluorescein with 3-1 Transposition)

Compounds 21 and 7 were characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 23). Absorbance was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peaks at 600 nm (light dashed line) and 675 nm (light solid line) represent the dianions of compounds 21 and 7, respectively, in NaOH (pH 12). The peaks at 590 nm (heavy dashed line) and 650 nm (heavy solid line) represent a mix of mono- and dianions of compound 21 at pH 7.4 and predominantly monoanions of compound 7 at pH 9, respectively. Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted absorption spectra of about 60-75 nm, depending on the ionization state.

Compounds 21 and 7 also were characterized by their fluorescence emission spectra. Fluorescence was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For compound 21, the longest wavelength emission observed from the dianion occurred near 680 nm at pH 9. For compound 7 (transposed), the longest wavelength emission observed from the monoanion occurred near 800 nm at pH 9. Emission from the transposed dianion in sodium hydroxide was either too weak to be detected or, more likely, beyond the working range of the instrument (>850 nm). The 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission of about 120 nm, and possibly more depending on the ionization state.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 80 nm for the compound 21 dianion, and about 150 nm for the compound 7 (transposed) monoanion. Thus, the 3-1 transposition also enhanced the Stokes shift.

Compounds 22 and 8 (Type [c] Fully Annulated Naphthofluorescein Methyl Ester with Known Regiochemistry Versus Fully Annulated Type [c] Naphthofluorescein Methyl Ester with 3-1 Transposition)

Compound 22 was synthesized according to Scheme 4. Naphthofluorescein (compound 21, 0.05 g, 0.115 mmol) was dissolved in 2 mL methanol. The solution was cooled to 0° C. in an ice bath. Concentrated sulfuric acid (100 μL) was added to the solution, and the mixture was refluxed for 24 hours. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature, and then poured into 250 mL of ice water; 200 mg NaHCO₃ was added. The precipitate was filtered and washed twice with 2% NaHCO₃ and then twice with water. Compound 22 was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. The yield was 26 mg, 50%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO) δ 10.05 (s, 1H), 8.96 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 2H), 8.60 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 8.33 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 7.98 (t, J=6.9 Hz, 1H), 7.89 (t, J=7.7 Hz, 1H), 7.63 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 2H), 7.56 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 7.32-7.21 (m, 1H), 7.18-7.03 (m, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=9.1 Hz, 2H), 3.56 (s, 3H). HR ESI [M+H⁺] m/z 447.1231 calc for C₂₉H₁₉O₅; 447.1237.

Compound 8 was synthesized by dissolving 1,8-dihydroxy-naphthalene (0.5 g, 3.12 mmol) and phthalic anhydride (0.231 g, 1.56 mmol) in 2 mL of methanesulfonic acid, and then adding 2 mL trifluoroacetic acid. The mixture was heated and stirred at 80° C. for 24 h. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature, and then poured into 100 mL of deionized water. The precipitate (compound 7) was filtered and washed with deionized water, and then isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 0.122 g, 18%. Esterification then was carried out as described for compound 22. Compound 8 was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 0.023 g, 86%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO) δ 14.45 (s, 1H), 8.32 (dd, J=7.9, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (td, J=7.5, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.87 (td, J=7.7, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.62-7.66 (m, 4H), 7.56 (dd, J=7.6, 0.9 Hz, 1H), 7.13, (d, J=7.2 Hz, 2H), 6.91 (dd, J=8.4, 0.8 Hz, 2H), 6.77 (d, J=9.1 Hz, 2H), 3.55 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, DMSO) δ 167.48, 165.22, 154.58, 137.69, 135.10, 134.52, 133.66, 130.95, 130.56, 130.40, 130.05, 129.20, 120.79, 119.99, 119.87, 116.26, 112.80, 52.42. HR ESI [M+H⁺] m/z 447.1236, calc for C₂₉H₁₉O₅; 447.1237.

Compounds 22 and 8 were characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 24). Absorbance was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peaks at 610 nm (light dashed line) and 685 nm (light solid line) represent the anions of compounds 22 and 8, respectively, in NaOH (pH 12). The peaks at 605 nm (heavy dashed line) and 805 nm (heavy solid line) represent the neutral forms of compounds 22 and 8 at pH 7.4, respectively. Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted absorption spectra of about 75-200 nm, depending on the ionization state.

It is interesting to note that for the transposed compound, ionization of the hydroxyl leads to shorter wavelength absorption. This is counter to what is observed for the known regiochemistry. It is also apparent from these first two examples that the 3-1 transposition's effect on spectral properties (red shifted spectra) is more pronounced when the carboxylate is replaced by a methyl ester.

The unique location of hydroxyl groups provided by the 3-1 transposition leads to increased interaction with the xanthene oxygen. This is one possible explanation for the observed red shift and unexpected behavior. Molecular modeling has demonstrated that in the neutral form, the hydroxyl proton of the transposed structure is held tightly with two hydrogen bonds and that in the anionic form, the xanthene oxygen is more electropositive for the transposed vs. the known regiochemistry (Mulliken charge of −0.289 vs. −0.386). Work is currently ongoing to further characterize this interaction and employ this strategy to further tune the spectral properties of xanthene-based structures without the need for complicated synthetic strategies which can include replacing the xanthene oxygen with more electropositive elements (i.e. S, Se, C, Si, etc.). In recent work Nagano and co-workers have used a similar strategy to extend the absorption and emission wavelength of rhodamines and pyronines by approximately 80 nm each (DOI: 10.1021/cb1002416). It should be noted that this approach retains the relatively small Stokes shifts (15-20 nm) present in the parent structure. However, the transposition approach disclosed herein increased the Stokes shift. Additionally, the emission of compounds reported by Nagano and co-workers are ca. 100 nm or more to the blue of those resulting from the 3-1 transposition approach described herein.

Compounds 22 and 8 also were characterized by their fluorescence emission spectra. Fluorescence was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For compound 22, the longest wavelength emission observed from the anion occurred near 690 nm at pH 9. For compound 8 (transposed), emission was not observed. Given the greater than 800 nm absorbance peak and the typically large Stokes shifts observed in this class of compounds, it is likely that the emission was beyond the working range of the instrument (>850 nm). Assuming that emission of the transposed compound is beyond 850 nm, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission of more than 160 nm.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 80 nm for the compound 22 anion, and unmeasurable for the compound 8 (transposed) neutral form. It is likely that the 3-1 transposition also enhanced the Stokes shift.

Absorbance and fluorescence of compounds 22 and 8 also were measured in methanol. Compound 22 exhibited an absorption maximum at 598 nm. Compound 8 exhibited an absorption maximum at 701 nm. Compound 22 exhibited an emission maximum at 688 nm. Compound 8 exhibited an emission maximum at 816 nm. Thus, placement of the hydroxyl group proximal to the xanthene internal oxygen in compound 8 produced a bathochromic shift of 103 nm in the absorption spectrum. The transposition also imparted a corresponding shift in the excitation spectrum, and a large bathochromic shift of 128 nm in the fluorescence emission. Importantly, compound 8 absorbs and emits in the near-infrared with absorption and emission maxima of 701 nm and 816 nm, respectively. Analogous trends were observed in other solvent systems, e.g., DMSO, DMSO:aqueous 1:1 (pH 9), DMSO:aqueous 1:9 (pH9), DMSO:aqueous 1:1 (pH 12.1, NaOH), and DMSO:aqueous 1:9 (pH 12.1, NaOH).

Compounds 20a and 15a (Type [c] Annulated Seminaphthofluorescein Methyl Ester with Known Regiochemistry Versus Annulated Type [c] Seminaphthofluorescein Methyl Ester with 3-1 Transposition)

Some type [c] Seminaphthofluoresceins with the regiochemistry of the ionizable group on the carbon 3 have been commercially available. However, given the large effect observed when the carboxylate was replaced with a methyl ester on compounds with the transposed geometry above, the previously unreported seminaphthofluorescein methyl ester analogue was prepared for direct comparison with new transposed compounds.

Compound 20a was synthesized (Scheme 3) by condensing compound 17a (0.25 g, 0.968 mmol) and compound 18a (0.232 g, 1.45 mmol) under acidic conditions. Compound 19a was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 303 mg, 82%. Compound 19a (50 mg, 131 μmol) was esterified as described previously for compound 22. Compound 20a was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 27 mg, 52%. ¹H NMR (600 MHz, DMSO) δ 10.57 (s, 1H), 8.53 (d, J=9.1 Hz, 1H), 8.25 (dd, J=8.0, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 7.90 (td, J=7.5, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.81 (td, J=7.8, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.53 (dd, J=14.7, 7.7 Hz, 2H), 7.34 (dd, J=9.1, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (d, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 6.86 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 6.78 (d, J=89 Hz, 1H), 6.50 (D, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 6.47 (dd, J=9.6, 2.0 Hz, 1H), 3.56 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (151 MHz, DMSO) δ 183.52, 165.24, 159.27, 158.26, 150.81, 149.36, 137.52, 134.26, 133.27, 130.72, 130.69, 130.04, 192.92, 129.85, 129.48, 124.47, 123.27, 122.90, 119.85, 117.45, 116.08, 113.91, 110.07, 104.55, 52.10. HR ESI [M+H⁺] m/z 397.1068; calc for C₂₅H₁₇O₅; 397.1081.

Compound 15a was synthesized (Scheme 2) by condensing compound 12a (0.250 mg, 0918 mmol) and compound 13a (0.232 g, 1.45 mmol) under acidic conditions. Compound 14a was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 300 mg, 81%. Compound 14a was esterified as described previously for compound 22. Compound 15a was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 40 mg, 77%. ¹H NMR (600 MHz, DMSO) δ 10.78 (s, 1H), 8.25 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (td, J=7.6, 1.3 Hz, 1H), 7.86-7.77 (m, 1H), 7.63-7.51 (m, 3H), 7.40 (s, 1H), 7.13 (s, 1H), 6.86 (d, J=9.7 Hz, 1H), 6.81 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 6.50 (dd, J=9.7, 1.9 Hz, 1H), 6.34 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 3.55 (s, 3H). HR ESI [M+H⁺] m/z 397.1079; calc for C₂₅H₁₇O₅; 397.1081.

Compounds 20a and 15a were characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 25). Absorbance was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peaks at 545 nm (light dashed line) and 595 nm (light solid line) represent the respective anions, compounds 20c and 15h, in NaOH (pH 12). The peaks at 515 nm (heavy dashed line) and 525 nm (heavy solid line) represent the predominantly neutral forms of compounds 20a and 15a at pH 6, respectively. Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted absorption spectra of about 10-55 nm, depending on the ionization state.

Compounds 20a and 15a also were characterized by their fluorescence emission spectra. Fluorescence was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For compound 20a, the longest wavelength emission observed from its corresponding anion, compound 20c, occurred near 640 nm in NaOH (pH 12). For compound 15a (with 3-1 transposition), the longest wavelength emission observed from the corresponding anion, compound 15h, occurred near 760 nm in NaOH. The 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission by about 120 nm for the longest wavelength-emitting species.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 95 nm for the compound 20c anion, and about 165 nm for the compound 15h (transposed) anion. Thus, the 3-1 transposition enhanced the Stokes shift by about 70 nm.

Absorbance and fluorescence of compounds 20a and 15a also were measured in methanol. Compound 20a exhibited absorption maxima at 487 nm and 521 nm. Compound 15a exhibited absorption maxima at 501 nm and 536 nm. Compound 20a exhibited an emission maximum at 550 nm. Compound 15a exhibited an emission maximum at 582 nm. Thus, placement of the hydroxyl group proximal to the xanthene internal oxygen in compound 15a produced a bathochromic shift of 15 nm in the absorbance spectrum. The transposition also imparted a corresponding shift in the excitation spectrum, and a large bathochromic shift of 32 nm in the fluorescence emission.

Although the red shift of compound 15a in methanol was modest, its corresponding anion (compound 15h) in DMSO:aqueous base 1:9 was shifted more substantially by 50 nm to 599 nm as compared to anion 20c under the same conditions. Its fluorescence emission was shifted by an even larger 130 nm, emitting at 760 nm. The comparatively large shift of the anion 15h supports a polar effect as playing a key role in modulating the HOMO-LUMO gap in the compound. The oxoanion of asymmetric 15h is expected to have a more significant field effect on the polarity of the proximal ether oxygen as compared to the corresponding oxoanion 20c Like many other NIR-emitting compounds, compound 15h displays a relatively low quantum yield (less than 1%) in aqueous solution. The brightness of compound 15h is comparable to other NIR probes.

Compounds 15b and 15d (Type [c] Annulated Seminaphthorhodafluor Methyl Esters (Free Amino and Dimethyl, Respectively) with 3-1 Transposed Regiochemistries)

The methyl ester analogue of known seminaphthofluorescein behaves similarly to previously reported compounds. Only a slight red shift, on the order of approximately 10 nm as compared to the carboxylate containing compound (Whitaker et al. Analytical Biochemistry, 1991, 194, 330-344), was observed. Thus the methyl ester analogues of known seminaphthorhodafluors (alternatively known as seminaphthorhodols) were not prepared for direct comparison. Literature values for similar compounds with the known regiochemistry were used for comparison with compounds 15b and 15d.

Compound 15b (free amino) was characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 26), and compared to C.SNARF-5 (literature, SNARF=seminaphthorhodafluor). Absorbance was measured using a 15 μM solution of compound 15b in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peak at 535 nm (heavy line) represents the predominantly phenolic form of 15b at pH 6. The peak at 615 nm (light line) represents the phenoxide of compound 15b at in NaOH (pH12). In comparison, C.SNARF-5 produces a peak at 550 nm (anionic form) and a peak at 485 nm (neutral form) (Whitaker et al., Anal. Biochem. 1991, 194, 330-344). Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted absorption spectra of about 50-65 nm, depending on the ionization state.

Compound 15b also was characterized by its fluorescence emission spectrum and compared to C.SNARF-5. Fluorescence was measured using a 15 μM solution of compound 15b in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For C.SNARF-5, the longest wavelength emission observed from the anion occurred near 632 nm (Whitaker et al., Anal. Biochem. 1991, 194, 330-344). For compound 15b (transposed), the longest wavelength emission observed from the phenoxide occurred near 770 nm. The 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission by about 138 nm for the longest wavelength-emitting species.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 82 nm for the C.SNARF-5 anion, and about 155 nm for the compound 15b (transposed) phenoxide. Thus, the 3-1 transposition enhanced the Stokes shift by about 73 nm.

Compound 15d (dimethyl) was characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 27), and compared to SNARF-1 (literature). Absorbance was measured using 15 μM solutions of compound 15d in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peak at 570 nm (heavy line) represents the predominantly neutral form of 15d at pH 6. The peak at 630 nm (light line) represents the phenoxide of compound 15d in NaOH (pH 12). In comparison, SNARF-1 produces a peak at 573 nm (anionic form) and a peak at 515 nm (neutral form) (Whitaker et al., Anal. Biochem. 1991, 194, 330-344). Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted absorption spectra of about 55-57 nm, depending on the ionization state.

Compound 15d also was characterized by its fluorescence emission spectrum and compared to SNARF-1. Fluorescence was measured using a 15 μM solution of compound 15d in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For SNARF-1, the longest wavelength emission observed from the anion occurred near 631 nm (Whitaker et al., Anal. Biochem. 1991, 194, 330-344). For compound 15d (transposed), the longest wavelength emission observed from the phenoxide occurred near 780 nm (NaOH, pH 12). The 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission by about 149 nm for the longest wavelength-emitting species.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 58 nm for the SNARF-1 anion, and about 150 nm for the compound 15d (transposed) phenoxide. Thus, the 3-1 transposition enhanced the Stokes shift by about 92 nm.

Compounds 20b and 15g (Type [c] Annulated Seminaphthorhodamine Methyl Esters (Free Amino) with Known and 3-1 Transposed Regiochemistries, Respectively)

To the best of the inventors' knowledge, the full seminaphthorhodamine analog with type [c] annulation and the known regiochemistry has not been reported. We prepared this compound (20b) for direct comparison with a new seminaphthorhodamine with the 3-1 transposition (15g).

Compounds 20b and 15g were characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy (FIG. 28). Absorbance was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. The peaks at 540 nm (dashed line) and 570 nm (solid line) represent the cations of compounds 20b and 15g, respectively, at pH 7.4. Thus, the 3-1 transposition resulted in a red-shifted absorption spectrum of about 30 nm.

Compounds 20b and 15g also were characterized by their fluorescence emission spectra. Fluorescence was measured using 15 μM solutions of each compound in a solution that was 90% aqueous, 10% DMSO. For compound 20b, the longest wavelength emission observed from the cation occurred near 640 nm at pH 7.4. For compound 15g (transposed), the longest wavelength emission observed from the cation occurred near 770 nm at pH 7.4. The 3-1 transposition resulted in red-shifted emission by about 130 nm.

The Stokes shift of each compound was measured and determined to be about 100 nm for the compound 20b cation, and about 200 nm for the compound 15g (transposed) cation. Thus, the 3-1 transposition enhanced the Stokes shift by about 100 nm.

Compounds 15e and 15f (Type [c] Annulated Seminaphthorhodafluor Methyl Esters (Free Amino and Dimethyl) with 3-1 Transposed Regiochemistries and the Ionizable Moieties Transposed)

In addition to the previous examples, a second series of seminaphthorhodafluors (15e-15f) with the 3-1 transposition was prepared in which the ionizable hydroxyl and amine (free amino and dimethyl) functionalities also were transposed. The nearest compound for comparison, a type [c] annulated seminaphthorhodafluor with the known regiochemistry, was reported to “display longer wavelength fluorescence, emitting at 600 nm in MeOH when excited at 525 nm.” (Clark et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 2004, 45, 7129-7131.)

The new series of compounds based on transposition of the ionizable hydroxyl and amine functionalities combined with the 3-1 transposed regiochemistry disclosed herein displays unanticipated acid-base properties. Known seminaphthorhodafluors display long wavelength absorption at high pH; however, the free amino compound in this series respond to low pH with increased long wavelength absorption. FIG. 29 shows a series of pH titration curves of compound 15e, demonstrating increased long wavelength absorption and decreased short wavelength absorption at low pH.

Preliminary data also indicate that this series (free amino and dimethyl) exhibit red-shifted spectra comparable to others compounds with the 3-1 transposition disclosed herein. Emission maxima of the longest wavelength emitting species are in the range of ˜740-780 nm. It is apparent the red-shifted compounds based on the combination of transpositions are considerably more red shifted as compared to the previously reported compounds.

Compound 10—7-(2,5-dimethylphenyl)-13-hydroxy-1H-dibenzo[c,h]xanthen-1-one

1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (0.298 mg, 1.86 mmol) and 2,5-dimethyl-benzaldehyde were suspended in 2 mL of 85% H₃PO₄, the mixture was vigorously stirred and heated at 125° C. for 24 hours. The mixture was allowed to cool down to room temperature and then poured into 50 mL of water. The precipitate formed was filtered and washed with water (2×50 mL). The target compound is isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 67 mg, 17%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.59-7.45 (m, 4H), 7.35 (s, 2H), 7.16 (s, 2H), 7.10 (s, 2H), 7.04 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 2H), 6.94 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 2.45 (s, 3H), 2.00 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 155.96, 138.17, 136.37, 135.49, 133.06, 132.79, 130.87, 130.65, 129.51, 121.04, 120.73, 120.52, 117.21, 113.46, 21.18, 19.43.HR ESI [M+H₊] m/z 417.1476, calc for C₂₉H₂₁O₃; 417.1496.

Compound 16a—methyl 2-(1-methoxy-10-oxo-10H-benzo[c]xanthen-7-yl)benzoate

Under argon atmosphere, compound 14a (0.050 g, 0.131 mmol) and K₂CO₃ (0.072 g, 0.523 mmol) were suspended in 600 μL of anhydrous DMF. CH₃I (0.111 g, 0.785 mmol) was added in one portion and the mixture heated at 60° C. for 24 hours. The mixture was allowed to cool down to room temperature and then 5 mL of saturated NH₄Cl aqueous solution was added. Compound 16a was isolated by flash column chromatography on silica gel using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1 for elution. Yield 9.8 mg, 18%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.29 (dd, J=7.8, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.80-7.73 (m, 1H), 7.74-7.67 (m, 1H), 7.60 (t, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 7.47 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 7.42 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (dd, J=7.5, 1.0 Hz, 1H), 7.07 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H), 6.93 (dd, J=9.1, 5.3 Hz, 2H), 6.68 (q, J=1.8 Hz, 2H), 4.13 (s, 3H), 3.59 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 185.38, 165.66, 158.82, 158.40, 151.35, 150.61, 137.97, 135.12, 132.78, 131.21, 130.67, 130.38, 130.32, 129.67, 129.27, 124.52, 123.41, 120.49, 118.58, 116.77, 114.92, 107.91, 105.48, 56.26, 52.39. HR ESI [M+H₊] m/z 411.1231; calc for C₂₆H₁₉O₅; 411.1237.

Methylation at R¹⁸ to produce methyl ether 16a dramatically improved the quantum yield. The quantum yield of yellow-orange emitting 16a was 0.4649, 40 times greater than the corresponding neutral compound 15a. It was slightly higher than the yellow-green emitting neutral compound 20a, and >2 times higher than orange-red emitting anion 20c. The compounds (7.5 μM) were analyzed in 10:90 DMSO:aqueous solutions. Fluorescence emission was readily visible in a darkened room when the solutions were excited from below with 3-watt megaMAX 505 nm ALS system. The emission-enhancing properties afforded through the combination of the 3-1 transposition and methylation is in contrast to previously reported methyl ethers of seminaphthofluorescein compounds.

The interested reader is referred to http://pubs.acs.org/doi/suppl/10.1021/ja302445w/suppl_file/ja302445w_si_(—)001.pdf for additional NMR, ESI, and absorption spectra, as well as HOMO-LUMO surfaces of some embodiments of the disclosed compounds.

Example 2 Synthesis of Para-, Ortho-, and Meta-Bridged Bis-Viologens Para-Bridged Viologens were Synthesized According to Scheme 13

Bipyridine (16.66 g, 106.65 mmol) was dissolved in 125 mL of acetonitrile and the solution was brought to reflux. Next, p-bis-(bromo-methyl)benzene (5 g, 18.94 mmol) was dissolved in 300 mL of acetonitrile. This solution was added to the bipyridine refluxing solution during one hour. After complete addition of the p-bis-(bromo-methyl)benzene solution, the mixture was refluxed for an additional 24 hours. The precipitate formed was filtered and washed with acetonitrile (2×50 mL), and air dried. The single bridged viologen 103 was obtained as a pale yellow solid. Yield 10.5 g, 96%. ¹H NMR (DMSO-d₆, 400 MHz): δ (ppm) 9.4-9.41 (4H, d), 8.85-8.86 (4H, d), 8.65-8.67 (4H, d), 8.00-8.01 (4H, d), 7.74 (4H, s), 5.94 (4H, s).

Compound 103 (3 g, 5.3 mmol) was suspended in 30 mL of water, and the mixture was heated until complete dissolution of the precipitate. 20 mL of 1 M NH₄ PF₆ was added slowly. The mixture was allowed to cool down to room temperature, and filtered; the pale yellow precipitate was washed with water (3×50 mL), and dried under vacuum. Yield 3.426 g, 93%. ¹H NMR (DMSO-d₆, 400 MHz): δ (ppm) 9.32-9.34 (4H, d), 8.86-8.87 (4H, d), 8.63-8.64 (4H, d), 7.99-8.00 (4H, d) 7.66 (4H, s), 5.88 (4H, s).

Meta-bridged viologens were synthesized according to Scheme 14 using the same general procedure as Scheme 9, with meta-bis-(chloro-methyl)benzene used in place of compound 101:

Ortho-bridged viologens were synthesized according to Scheme 15 using the same general procedure as Scheme 10, with ortho-bis-(bromo-methyl)benzene used in place of compound 101:

Example 2 Synthesis of Bridged Para-Bis Rhodol Viologen Conjugate Mono(1′,1″-(1,4-phenylenebis(methylene))bis(1-(3-(2-(10-(dimethylimino)-1-hydroxy-10H-benzo[c]xanthen-7-yl)benzoyloxy)propyl)-4,4′-bipyridine-1,1′-diium))tetrabromide, 54

The use of near-infrared fluorophores to produce both symmetric and asymmetric single bridged viologen conjugates for GSH detection is currently underway. Compound 54 a single bridged para-viologen bis-rhodol analogue may be synthesized as shown in Scheme 11 (FIG. 15).

Rhodol 14d, has been synthesized (Scheme 16) according to published protocols. (Strongin et al., “Developing Fluorogenic Reagents for Detecting and Enhancing Bloody Fingerprints,” NCJ 227841, Grant Report, 2009.)

Energy-minimized structures for each of the bis-rhodol viologen isomers are shown in FIGS. 17-19.

Meta- and ortho-bridged viologen conjugates can be synthesized according to Scheme 11 (FIG. 15) using the same general procedure, with meta-bis-(chloro-methyl)benzene or ortho-bis-(bromo-methyl)benzene, respectively, used in place of para-bis-(bromo-methyl)benzene.

Embodiments of bridged para-bis viologens including a fluorophore attached to the viologen backbone via an upper ring of the fluorophore are synthesized as shown in Scheme 12 (FIG. 16).

Example 3 Emission in Blood

Compound 15d (Table 1) was diluted to 40 μM in 50% DMSO:50% 25 mM pH 9 phosphate buffer. As shown in FIG. 30, the diluted compound fluoresced with λ_(max ex)=˜690 nm and λ_(max em)=˜790 nm (Stokes shift=˜100 nm, 1834 cm⁻¹). Inclusion of whole blood (porcine blood in Na-EDTA, Lampire Biological Laboratories) in the aqueous portion of this solvent to produce a final blood concentration of 5% by volume resulted in only minimal loss of fluorescence attributed to hemoglobin absorption and scattering from blood components. Emission remained stable for at least 1 hour. The absorption profile matches the output of a laser pointer (635-670 nm; max output<5 mW). NIR emission (80 μM) was clearly visible with a digital camera (Kodak EasyShare Z740) in a NIR photograph taken with 8 sec. exposure collected through a Hoya R72 camera filter (% T<1% at <690 nm, % T>90% at >750 nm). Similar results were observed with 5% whole blood, but with increased scattered excitation light clearly visible in the both visible and NIR images, an issue that was easily overcome with a second filter.

However, the close match between compound 15d's absorption and the output of a common laser pointer allowed its excitation with a simple inexpensive light source. Furthermore, its NIR emission was detected with a commercial-grade digital camera in normal room light combined with an inexpensive Hoya R72 infrared filter (FIG. 30 inset).

The absorption of compound 4a (Table 1) was clearly visible and remained stable over extended periods of time in the blood solution. Compound 5a (Table 2) was also found to function in 5% blood. Its absorbance and fluorescence spectra faded over time, but remained visible after about an hour (although with only 10-20% of its original emission intensity). Molecular modeling has shown favorable structural interactions of compounds 5f and 24 with glutathione (see, e.g., FIG. 20—compound 24).

Spectral behavior of compound 15g (type [c] annulated seminaphthorhodamine methyl ester (free amine) with the 3-1 transposition) was investigated to determine its potential for sensing use in whole blood. Solutions of compound 15g in 10% or 90% by volume whole blood (porcine blood in Na-EDTA, Lampire Biological Laboratories) were investigated in a 3×3 mm cell. The fluorophore was first dissolved in 50 mM, pH 7.4 phosphate buffer to ensure complete dissolution, and in the case of 90% whole blood, this stock solution was mixed with whole blood in a 1:9 ratio. In the case of 10% whole blood, 1 part whole blood was added to 9 parts of an appropriately diluted (with deionized water) solution of compound 15g stock. In both cases, the final concentration of compound 15g was 150 μM with a final phosphate buffer concentration of 5 mM. FIG. 31A shows the absorbance spectra of compound 15g in 10% whole blood compared to 10% whole blood without the compound. Throughout much of the spectrum, the dye produces a greater absorbance than the blood alone. The change in absorbance between the two spectra provides the effective absorbance of the dye. As shown in FIG. 31A, there is a relatively high transparency blood “window” extending from about 650 nm to 850 nm. The broad absorption and large Stokes shift of this dye allows significant excitation with greater than 50% efficiency at wavelengths beyond that of the major hemoglobin peaks in blood. FIG. 31B shows the emission spectra of compound 15g in 10% and 90% whole blood samples upon excitation at 670 nm. As shown in FIG. 31B, dye emission is clearly seen in both blood samples with an emission spectrum maximum of about 750 nm. The photograph inset in FIG. 31B demonstrates that 10 and 90% whole blood samples (left and right, respectively) are nearly indistinguishable by the naked eye.

Compound 8 (type [c] fully annulated naphthofluorescein methyl ester with 3-1 transposition) displays a maximum absorption at greater than 800 nm, well past that of hemoglobin absorption in blood. As a result, compound 8 also may perform well in blood.

Example 4 Synthesis and Characterization of Rhodamine Bis-Boronic Acids Compound 51—Seminaphthorhodamine Bis-Boronic Acid

With reference to Scheme 9 (FIG. 13), the starting material, 2-(4-amino-2-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid was obtained via the basic hydrolysis of rhodamine 110 at 160° C. over 3 hours in 92% yield. Acid condensation with 1,6-aminohydroxynaphthalene using a 1:1 mixture of CH₃SO₃H:TFA afforded the corresponding seminaphthorhodamine 50 in 63% yield after isolation by flash column chromatography with CH₂Cl₂:MeOH, 9:1. Reductive amination to produce the corresponding bis-boronic acid 51 was carried out in dichloroethane (DCE) in two steps. Other solvents including MeCN and THF were also used, but gave low yields (less than 1%) of the desired target. The first step involved the reaction of 50 with 2-formylboronic acid and triacetoxy sodium borohydride under microwave irradiation at 130° C. for 40 minutes. The microwave vial was opened, acetic acid was added in one portion, and the mixture was heated for an additional 40 minutes at 130° C. The mixture was neutralized with saturated NaHCO₃, and the target compound was isolated by preparative TLC using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 9:1. The target compound was characterized by ¹H NMR, HR ESI MS, and its purity (96%) was determined by reversed phase HPLC.

Compound 53—Naphthorhodamine Bis-Boronic Acid

With reference to Scheme 10 (FIG. 14), naphthorhodamine 52 was synthesized in 74% yield by the acid promoted condensation of phthalic anhydride and 1,6-aminohydroxy-naphthalene via heating in the presence of trifluoromethane sulfonic acid at 100° C. for 2 hours, then at 140° C. for an additional 2 h under argon. Reductive amination to produce the corresponding bis-boronic acid 53 was carried out in DCE in two steps as described above. Optimal reaction conditions were obtained by monitoring the reaction by reversed phase HPLC. The target compound was isolated in 38% yield by preparative TLC using CH₂Cl₂:MeOH 95:5 for elution. Naphthorhodamine 52 and the target compound were characterized by ¹H NMR, HR ESI MS, and their purity (99% and 95% respectively) was determined by reversed phase HPLC on a C₁₈ reversed phase column and a gradient solvent system composed of H₂O:1% TFA in MeCN for elution.

Characterization:

The spectral properties of compounds 50-53 were determined. Absorption and fluorescence spectra of solutions of the rhodamine bis-boronic acids 51 and 53, and their respective precursors 50 and 52, are shown in FIGS. 35 a-c (in DMSO:buffer 1:9) and 35d-f (DMSO:buffer 1:1). Precursor 50 (2.25 μM) and bis-boronic acid compound 51 (3.75 μM) were excited and monitored at 500 nm and 675 nm. Precursor 52 (12.5 μM) and bis-boronic acid compound 53 (7.5 μM) were excited and monitored at 590 nm and 700 nm. Excitation and emission spectra were normalized to their absorbance at the excitation wavelength, and are proportional to quantum yield.

The results are summarized below in Table 5. The seminapthorhodamine 50 maximum absorption in DMSO buffer 1:9 was at 535 nm (40 nm to the red of rhodamine 110). Its maximum emission at 628 nm displayed a reasonable quantum yield of 19% and was red shifted nearly 100 nm as compared to rhodamine 110. The corresponding bis-boronic acid 51 was further red shifted with maximum absorption and emission at 560 and 638 nm, respectively. Emission was slightly quenched through photoinduced electron transfer (PET) in the boron-nitrogen system as evidenced by the lower quantum yield. It is interesting to note that the quenching for the original “RhoBo” and the fully annulated bis-boronic acid 53 discussed below is much greater than the asymmetric bis-boronic acid 51.

The maximum absorption of napthorhodamine 52 was further shifted to 578 nm with emission wavelength and quantum yield (668 nm, 10%) comparable to commercially available naphthofluorescein. The corresponding bis-boronic acid 53 was further red shifted with maximum absorption and emission at 628 and 692 nm, respectively. Although it displayed a reasonably strong blue/green color, its fluorescence was nearly completely quenched, allowing for a potential turn-on type sensor. Like the other compounds, its emission was slightly redder and its quantum yield was slightly higher in DMSO buffer 1:1. However, like its corresponding rhodamine precursor 52, it exists primarily in the closed and colorless lactone form in this solvent.

TABLE 5 Abs DMSO:buffer Compound (ε, M⁻¹cm⁻¹) Ex/Em (Q.Y.) Brightness ratio^(a) Rhodamine 110^(b)    495 (66800 @ 492) NA/523 (0.91) 60788 @ 492 NA RhoBo 501 (22149)  502/528 (0.30)^(c,f) 6645 1:9 50 535 (42701) 534/628 (0.19) 8083 1:9 Bis-boronic acid 51 560 (20326)  568/638 (0.15)^(e)  3032^(e) 1:9 52  578 (11994)^(d) 584/668 (0.10)  1144^(d) 1:9 Bis-boronic acid 53  628 (10759)^(d)  612/692 (0.004)^(f)    43^(d,f) 1:9 Rhodamine 110 503 (67905) 502/526 (NA)  NA 1:1 RhoBo 504 (21003) 504/528 (NA)  NA 1:1 50 542 (21064) 542/630 (0.30) 6298 1:1 Bis-boronic acid 51 579 (23096) 580/643 (0.35) 8037 1:1 52 602 (1081)^(g ) 596/676 (0.11)   121^(g) 1:1 Bis-boronic acid 53 616 (1616)^(g ) 624/700 (0.18)   292^(g) 1:1 ^(a)Final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM. ^(b)Solvent was 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.5, 15% (v/v) EtOH; Values from Leytus et al., Biochem. J. 209, 299 (*1983). ^(c)Value taken from Halo et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, 438 (2008). ^(d)Partial lactone formation. ^(e)Weak PET quenching, ^(f)Strong PET quenching, ^(g)Near complete lactone formation.

Example 5 Saccharide Sensing and Selectivity

Responses of the boronic acid probes. compounds 51 and 53, were monitored over a wide range of glucose, ribose, and fructose concentrations in various solvents. Solvents including MeCN, MeOH, EtOH, DMSO and buffer were initially screened for sugar sensing. Probes were partially soluble in MeCN and buffer, and soluble in MeOH, EtOH and DMSO. DMSO mixtures were chosen for further studies.

Due to the solvent-dependent lactone ring opening-closing equilibrium (Scheme 17) that these type of probes exhibit, a DMSO titration was carried out, in order to determine the range of possible conditions for sugar sensing. Samples were titrated from 0-60% DMSO. The final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM. Absorbance values were measured as follows: seminaphthorhodamine 50-532 nm, bis-boronic acid 51-578 nm, naphthorhodamine 52-578 nm, bis-boronic acid 53-627 nm. As shown in FIG. 36, at lower DMSO concentration, rhodamine precursors 50 and 52 as well as the bis-boronic acids 51 and 53 exist at least to some extent as the colored carboxylate species. As the DMSO concentration increased, the lactone form predominated (low absorbance values) for all but bis-boronic acid 51. For this case, the carboxylate form predominated over this DMSO concentration range. At DMSO concentrations of 60-90%, precipitation occurred for all cases; however, at 90% DMSO, all compounds were soluble and predominantly in their colorless closed lactone forms. It is interesting to note that the boronic acid derivatives are less prone to lactone formation than their corresponding rhodamine precursors.

Initial screening for sensing of glucose, fructose and ribose using these probes in mixtures DMSO:buffer 9:1 (final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration of 12.5 mM) used in our previous work, showed that no changes in either absorbance or fluorescence were observable. Incubation either at room temperature or 37° C. for up to 24 hours, gave similar results. It appears that sugar binding did not sufficiently alter the lactone equlibria in this solvent.

The spectral behavior of both compounds 51 and 53 in the presence of saccharides was further investigated in both 1:1 and 1:9 DMSO-buffer (final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration of 12.5 mM) solutions. Both bis-boronic acids responded to binding of sugars through a red shift in their emission and the expected increase in fluorescence intensity.

FIG. 37 shows the response of bis-boronic acid 51 to fructose, ribose and glucose under the two solvent conditions mentioned above. FIG. 37 a is absorption and emission spectra of compound 51 (3.75 μM) in response to 10 mM sugars in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 37 b is fluorescence emission (ex. 580 nm/em. 660 nm) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 37 c is absorption and emission spectra of compound 51 (3.75 μM) in response to 10 mM sugars in DMSO:buffer 1:1; FIG. 37 d is fluorescence emission (ex. 580 nm/em. 640 nm) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1. The final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM. The horizontal lines in FIGS. 37 b, 37 d represent fluorescence of compound 51 in the absence of analyte. In the 1:9 DMSO:buffer system, this asymmetric rhodamine bis-boronic acid responded more strongly to fructose (FIGS. 37 a and 37 b). An increase in fluorescence intensity was observed for fructose and ribose at the lowest concentration investigated. At high sugar concentrations, the response for all three sugars converged. A near 2-fold increase in absorbance resulted in a greater than 5-fold increase in fluorescence for all sugars. The solvent system was found to have a large effect on the response. Bis-boronic acid 51 responded most strongly to ribose in the 1:1 DMSO buffer system (FIGS. 37 c and 37 d). An approximately 1.5-fold increase in both absorbance and fluorescence was observed over the entire concentration range investigated. Binding of all three sugars occurred at lower concentrations as compared to the 1:9 DMSO:buffer system, with the response of both ribose and fructose having already plateaued at 10 mM, the lowest concentration investigated. Unlike the 1:9 solvent system, there were significant spectral differences in the responses toward different sugars (FIG. 37 c compared to FIG. 37 a).

There were significant differences between the responses of asymmetric bis-boronic acid 51 and symmetric bis-boronic acid 53. FIGS. 38 a-d show the response of compound 53 to fructose, ribose and glucose in both 1:9 and 1:1 DMSO:buffer systems. FIG. 38 a is absorption (630 nm) spectra of compound 53 (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 38 b is fluorescence (ex. 630/em. 690 nm) spectra of compound 53 (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:9; FIG. 38 c is absorption (640 nm) spectra of compound 53 (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1; FIG. 38 d is fluorescence (ex. 640/em. 700 nm) spectra of compound 53 (7.5 μM) as a function of sugar concentration in DMSO:buffer 1:1; The final pH 7.4 phosphate buffer concentration was 12.5 mM. Horizontal lines represent absorbance and fluorescence of compound 53 in the absence of analyte. Of the three sugars screened, compound 53 responded almost exclusively to fructose at concentrations below 100 mM in the 1:9 DMSO-buffer system (FIGS. 38 a, 38 b). At the highest concentration of fructose investigated, a less than 3-fold increase in absorbance at 630 nm resulted in a greater than 140-fold turn-on response of fluorescence emission at 710 nm upon excitation at 630 nm. No spectral shifts were observed in response to any of the sugars. The increase in absorbance may be at least partially the result of lactone opening upon sugar binding. The increase in fluorescence is largely the result of near complete disruption of the PET quenching in the boron-nitrogen system of the free rhodamine bis-boronic acid. It was estimated that the quantum yield of compound 53 after binding approaches 20% or more (140-fold fluorescence increase divided by 3-fold absorbance increase multiplied by the quantum yield of the free compound 53=0.186) which is greater than the quantum yield of precursor 52. Secondary interactions and additional rigidification of the chromophore upon binding could be responsible for this further enhancement of emission. Again, the solvent system was found to have a major effect. Affinity for ribose was greatly increased, approaching the response observed for fructose at the lowest concentration investigated (10 mM) upon changing the solvent system to 1:1 DMSO-buffer. Binding of all three sugars at lower concentrations (FIGS. 38 c and 38 d) was found to increase, and the response of all three sugars converged to nearly a 5-fold increase in emission at 720 nm upon excitation at 640 nm. Free bis-boronic acid 53 in 1:1 DMSO-buffer was colorless but binding of sugars promoted opening of the lactone leading to a green-blue color.

When the solvent system is mostly aqueous (1:9 DMSO:buffer), solvation by water inhibits intramolecular interactions by salt bridges, allowing the sugar boronate complexes in compound 51 to adopt practically any possible conformation reaching the carboxyl group without problem, especially for the side where the rhodamine system ring is not extended. For the relatively less aqueous system (1:1 DMSO:buffer), the selectivity turns slightly towards ribose due to the enhancement of intramolecular binding interactions between the bound sugar and dye. FIG. 39 shows a model of ribose bis-boronate of compound 51 describing the electrostatic interactions within the N—H—O—B atoms in a 1:1 DMSO:buffer solution. Electrostatic attraction between N—H—O—B atoms restricts rotation of the C—B bond resulting in selectivity for the ribose complex. Only one of the boronates can reach the carboxylate.

Compound 53 has both boronic acid groups far from each other and from the carboxylate compared to compound 51. In the 1:9 DMSO;buffer solvent system the selectivity followed the normal behavior (fructose>ribose>glucose). When the ratio DMSO:buffer is 1:9, the intramolecular electrostatic interactions are practically nonexistent, allowing more freedom to adopt many possible conformations. If saccharide bis-boronates are formed, the interactions between them can bend the planar chromophore slightly to allow interactions with the carboxylate.

Upon changing the solvent system to 1:1 DMSO-buffer, the affinity of symmetric compound 53 for ribose was greatly increased, approaching the response observed for fructose at relatively low concentrations. In this more organic solvent system, the asymmetric boronic acid compound 51 reversed its selectivity and responded most strongly to ribose. For the system with DMSO:buffer 1:1 ratio, the electrostatic interactions are very weak, but strong enough to restrict the molecule from adopting many possible conformations. FIG. 40 shows a model of a bis-boronate complex of compound 53 with two molecules of fructose.

Both compounds 51 and 53 exhibited selectivity trends (fructose>ribose>glucose) in the 1:9 DMSO:buffer system. Compound 53 is particularly attractive as a candidate for selective sugar determination as it responded exclusively to fructose through a clear to blue-green color change with corresponding turn-on NIR fluorescence enhancement of up to 140-fold and no interference from other sugars at concentrations below 100 mM.

Example 6 Screening Fluorophores

Embodiments of the disclosed fluorophore-viologen conjugates can be screened by determining properties of each fluorophore, including: 1) wavelength of maximum absorption of each form (i.e., neutral and ionized); 2) molar absorptivity of each form; 3) wavelength of maximum excitation of each form; 4) wavelength of maximum emission of each form (corrected for pmt (photomultiplier) response); 5) Stokes shift in units of both nm and energy of each form; 6) complete Excitation-Emission Matrix, EEM (corrected for pmt response) covering a wavelength region that includes solvent adduct, neutral and ionized forms (excitation 335-800 nm; emission 360-850 nm); 7) relative quantum yields of each form; and/or 8) pK_(a) (or apparent pK_(a) dependent on the solvent).

A standardized procedure including absorption spectra, excitation emission matrices (EEMs), emission spectra upon common “laser-line” excitations, and excitation spectra of the observed emission peaks, and/or serial dilutions of a pH titration series will provide the data required to characterize the fluorophore-viologen conjugates and their various forms.

The screening can be divided into two steps. The first step would be an initial screen of compounds comprised of:

Step 1-A: A single absorption spectra and EEM of ˜7.5 μM each compound (concentration will be lowered if the absorption is greater than about 0.25, or increased if the absorption is less than about 0.05) in pH 8.25 buffer with 5% DMSO (pH 8.25 is near or slightly greater than the likely pK_(a) of most of the fluorophores (with the exception of the proposed fluorinated derivatives), so both anionic and neutral forms will be present in significant (nearly equal) amounts). The DMSO will help with any potential solubility issues of the neutral form (the DMSO amount can be reduced if the fluorophore is sufficiently soluble).

Step1-B: The same procedure as 1-A, but with 5% buffer, 95% DMSO.

Step 2: Multiple concentrations of the fluorophore-viologen conjugates (for molar absorptivity and quantum yield measurements) and multiple pHs (for pK_(a) measurements) will be investigated for the most promising candidates. When available, appropriate quantum yield standards will allow estimation of absolute quantum yields.

Step 3: Computer-aided molecular modeling can be employed to investigate potential interactions with analytes of interest provided by the various geometries of the analytes and the fluorophore-viologen conjugates.

Interpretation of Results.

Steps 1A and 1B will provide a wealth of preliminary data (absorption and emission maxima of each species in both solvents, and an estimate of the relative quantum yield of the long wavelength species in both solvents). This initial first screen will not give any information about molar absorptivity, pK_(a), or absolute quantum yields. Selected compounds can be investigated further in Steps 2 and/or 3.

Example 7 Detecting and Quantitating Analytes in Biological Fluids

Promising fluorophore-viologen conjugates can be investigated to determine their binding with analytes of interest (e.g., GSH, cysteine, homocysteine, SAICAr, S-Ado) and to determine any potential interferences from blood and/or urine. A known procedure used to quantify binding of albumin dyes to blood components can be utilized (Omoefe et al., J. of Biomed. Optics 2001, 6(3), 359-365).

Measurements can be made in artificial blood or urine solutions containing the major fluid components and spiked with an analyte of interest. The major blood components and their mean concentration (mg/L) in blood are: HSA—41,000, HDL—850, LDL—810, globulin—32,000, red blood cells (43.5% hematocrit) 489,375 (Abugo et al., J. Biomed. Opt., 2001, 6, 359-365; Abugo et al., Anal. Biochem., 2000, 279, 142-150). The chemical composition of human urine has been thoroughly investigated and reported by NASA (NASA Contractor Report CR-1802). The composition of simulated urine and urine solutions will be based on their findings. Five major components (urea, creatinine, oxalate, uric acid and citrate) have previously been used to simulate urine content (Ow et al. IFMBE Proceedings, 2008, Vol. 21, Part 3, Part 11, 742-745; Osman et al., Biomed 2008 Proceedings 2008, 21, 742-745).

Apparent binding constants can be estimated directly from raw titration data without any model assumptions; however, the analytical representation of data may be used to simulate fluorophore behavior in a complex mixture with multiple potential interferences. A phenomenological approach involving fits of experimental titration curves may be used model the experimental data and allow rough estimates of the binding of various fluorophore-viologen conjugates in mixtures containing components of biological fluids. It may not be possible to test all blood (or urine) components; however, inclusion of the major components should be sufficient to screen embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores for selectivity toward analytes of interest. Matrix effects may be evaluated by comparing standard calibration curves in the biological fluids with standard calibration curves in an optimal buffer system.

Selectivity may be fine-tuned based on the experimental results combined with further computer aided molecular simulations. Analysis of GSH and SAICAr and S-Ado may be carried out in authentic biological fluids (GSH in blood and SAICAr and S-Ado in urine) using samples spiked with calibration (reference) standards and using quality control (QC) samples. The developed methodology may be evaluated according to standard procedures for method development including (a) accuracy, (b) precision, (c) selectivity, (d) sensitivity, (e) reproducibility, and (f) stability. Recovery of analyte can be determined using standard addition protocols. All biological fluids to be used may be purchased from commercial sources.

Results from optimal conditions for quantification of the analytes of interest in solution along with a similar methodology as described by Orfanos (Anal. Biochem., 1980, 104, 70-74) may be adapted for the detection and quantitation of the analytes of interest in biological fluids deposited in filter paper. Dried blood (or urine) specimens on filter paper are obtainable. For blood spots, disks may be punched from the paper and the blood contents typically eluted/extracted into a small volume of solvent. In conventional analyses, the absorption from hemoglobin remains a major interference. This is typically overcome by further dilution in order to ensure the hemoglobin content is less than 30 μg/ml. Such dilution complicates measurements of analytes present at high concentration and may even prevent analysis of trace analytes. Based on preliminary results (see Example 3), embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophores will function in the presence of at least 5% whole blood. Thus, extraction of the contents of a typical 4.8-mm disk into a small volume (0.6 mL or less, containing one of our fluorophores) may be used directly without dilution.

Fluorination of certain embodiments of the disclosed fluorophore-viologen conjugates may facilitate solubility in aqueous solutions. In certain instances, dithiothreitol (DTT) may be added to the analysis solution to prevent and/or minimize disulfide formation. At least some embodiments of the disclosed fluorophores function in the presence of DTT; furthermore, monitoring total GSH-GSSG (via adding DTT to the solution) is feasible since about 90% of blood GSH is in the reduced form and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) levels are similar in both patients and controls (Atkuri et al., PNAS U.S.A., 2009, 106, 3941-3945).

These studies may enable identification of NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates that bind strongly and selectively to analytes of interest. Fluorescence enhancement upon binding may be evaluated and utilized to determine what fluorophore or fluorophore-viologen conjugate geometries and functional groups favor target analytes or specific interfering components.

Example 8 Glutathione Selectivity Evaluation

Mechanistic studies may be conducted in control experiments (buffered media at physiological conditions or in the presence of a co-solvent if needed) to determine the origin of the selectivity observed for the analytes of interest by embodiments of the disclosed NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates. Conjugates, adducts or reaction products may be isolated and characterized by HPLC and LC-MS ESI. Crystal structures of isolated complexes, adducts or reaction products may be determined by X-Ray crystallography. Binding constants for complex formation between the analytes of interest and NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugates may be obtained using spectrometric methods including: 1H NMR, 2D 1H NMR(ROESY, NOESY), UV-vis or fluorescence. Selectivity and crossreactivity may be evaluated in the presence of possible interferences (e.g., Cys, Cys-Gly, and/or Cys-Glu for GSH). Influence of factors involved in selectivity/specificity including pH, ionic strength, type of buffering system, and molar ratios of analyte:NIR fluorophore-viologen conjugate may be evaluated using spectrometric methodologies.

Example 9 Selective Detection of SAICAr and S-Ado in Urine

Embodiments of the disclosed fluorophore-viologen conjugates functionalized with at least one boronic acid functional group (i.e., —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is as defined above) may serve as indicators for ADLS deficiency. Mechanistic investigations and characterization studies similar to those performed in Example 5 may be used to determine selectivity for SAICAr and/or S-Ado detection. Promising candidates may be evaluated in urine and/or synthetic urine samples.

Additional patent documents describing subject matter or background information which may be pertinent to the present disclosure include U.S. Publication No. 2008/0261315, U.S. Publication No. 2010/0051826, WO 2008/011508, and PCT/US2010/062582, each of which is incorporated in its entirety herein by reference.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of the disclosed invention may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustrated embodiments are only preferred examples of the invention and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention. Rather, the scope of the invention is defined by the following claims. We therefore claim as our invention all that comes within the scope and spirit of these claims. 

1. A compound according to Formula I, Formula II, or Formula III comprising a bridged viologen backbone and substituents R^(A) and R^(B)

where X⁻ is any counteranion, R^(A) and R^(B) independently are substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, or substituted or unsubstituted aryl or heteroaryl comprising one or more substituted or unsubstituted aromatic rings and/or heteroaromatic rings, and at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (i)

where each bond depicted as “

” is a single or double bond as needed to satisfy valence requirements; X¹ is O, S, Se, Si(CH₃)₂, Ge(CH₃)₂, Sn(CH₃)₂, CH₂, C(CH₃)₂, or NH; R¹, R², R⁴ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, halogen, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

R⁵, R⁷, and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R³ and R⁶ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, halogen, oxygen, sulfur, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, cycloalkyl imino or —NHR^(c); at least one of R¹ and R², R² and R³, R³ and R⁴, R⁵ and R⁶, R⁶ and R⁷, and/or R⁷ and R⁸ together form a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl; R⁹-R¹² independently are hydrogen, alkyl, acyl, carboxyl, nitro, amino, alkyl amino, or —SO₃H; R¹³ is hydrogen, hydroxyl, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, —SO₃H or —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a double bond, or R¹³ is one or more atoms forming a ring system with rings B and D and the bond depicted as “

” in ring B is a single bond; and at least one of R¹-R¹³ is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the bridged viologen backbone, wherein if R³ and R⁴ together form a substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl, then at least one of R¹ and R⁸ is other than hydrogen, or R¹³ is not —COOR¹⁴, or at least one additional substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl or aryl is formed by R¹ and R², R² and R³, R⁵ and R⁶, R⁶ and R⁷, and/or R⁷ and R⁸.
 2. The compound of claim 1 where at least one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore having a structure according to general formula (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), or (xi)

where R¹⁵-R²² independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, oxygen, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c) where R^(c) is

and at least one of R¹-R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone, wherein if the fluorophore has a structure according to general formula (iii) then at least one of R¹ and R⁸ is other than hydrogen or R¹³ is not —COOR¹⁴.
 3. The compound of claim 1 where R¹³ is the linker and has the formula —COO—.
 4. The compound of claim 1 where both R^(A) and R^(B) are fluorophores, each fluorophore independently having a structure selected according to general formula (i).
 5. (canceled)
 6. The compound of claim 1 where one of R^(A) and R^(B) is a fluorophore according to general formula (i), and the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is a lower alkyl nitrile, lower alkyl substituted phenyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, substituted coumarin, acetal, or carboxylate group.
 7. The compound of claim 6 where the other of R^(A) and R^(B) is


8. The compound of claim 1 where X¹ is oxygen.
 9. The compound of claim 1 where R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring, and at least one of R¹-R¹² is the linker.
 10. The compound of claim 2 where R¹³ is —COO— and forms a lactone ring, and at least one of R¹-R¹² or R¹⁵-R²² is the linker. 11-15. (canceled)
 16. The compound of claim 2 where the fluorophore has a structure according to: (a) general formula (iii), (iv), (ix), or (x) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁸ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or alkoxy; (b) general formula (iii) where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c); (c) general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are NHR^(c); (d) general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁹ is hydroxyl, thiol, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, or alkyl amino; (e) general formula (iv) where X¹ is oxygen, R¹⁸ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or alkoxy, and R¹⁹ is hydroxyl, thiol, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, or alkyl amino; or (f) general formula (vi) where R¹⁷ is halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c), and R²⁰ is oxygen, sulfur, imino, iminium, alkyl iminium, or —NHR^(c). 17-20. (canceled)
 21. A method for detecting an analyte, comprising: forming a solution by combining a sample comprising an analyte with a compound according to claim 1; allowing a reaction between the analyte and the compound in the solution to proceed for an effective period of time to a produce a detectable change in the solution's absorbance spectrum, emission spectrum, or both, where the change indicates that the analyte is present; and detecting the change.
 22. The method of claim 21 where detecting the change comprises: exposing the solution to a light source; and detecting the analyte by detecting fluorescence from the compound at a wavelength corresponding to an emission spectrum maximum of the compound after the reaction has proceeded for the effective period of time. 23-30. (canceled)
 31. The method of claim 21 where the analyte comprises cysteine, homocysteine, glutathione, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination of succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside and succinyladenosine.
 32. The method of claim 31 where the compound comprises at least one fluorophore according to general formula (vi)

—where: R¹, R⁴, R⁵ and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen; R¹⁵-R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy or —NHR^(c); R¹⁹-R²² independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, halogen, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c); and at least one of R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸-R¹³, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²¹ or R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone.
 33. (canceled)
 34. The method of claim 32 where: (a) the analyte is glutathione, R¹⁷ is hydroxyl, amino, or alkyl amino, and R²⁰ is oxygen, hydroxyl, amino, alkyl amino, imino, or alkyl iminium; or (b) the analyte is succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, at least one of R¹⁷ and R²⁰ is —NHR^(c), R¹³ is —COOR¹⁴ where R¹⁴ is hydrogen or lower alkyl, and one of R⁹, R¹⁰, R¹¹, or R¹² is the linker.
 35. (canceled)
 36. The method of claim 31 where the analyte is succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination thereof, and the compound comprises at least one fluorophore according to: (a) general formula (iii):

where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c); or (b) general formula (iv)

where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c). 37-40. (canceled)
 41. A kit for detecting an analyte, comprising at least one compound according to claim 1, wherein the compound when combined with a sample comprising the analyte will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound in a sample that does not comprise the analyte.
 42. (canceled)
 43. The kit of claim 41, further comprising at least one buffer solution in which the compound when combined with a sample comprising the analyte will undergo a change in its absorbance spectrum and/or emission spectrum compared to the compound combined with the buffer solution and a sample that does not comprise the analyte.
 44. The kit of claim 41, where the analyte comprises glutathione, cysteine, homocysteine, succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, succinyladenosine, or a combination of succinyl-5-amino-4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside and succinyladenosine.
 45. The kit of claim 44 where the compound comprises at least one fluorophore according to: (a) general formula (vi)

where R¹, R⁴, R⁵ and R⁸ independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, lower alkyl, carboxyalkyl, amino, substituted amino, alkoxy, or halogen, R¹⁵-R¹⁸ independently are hydrogen, halogen, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, alkyl amino, alkoxy or —NHR^(c), R¹⁹-R²² independently are hydrogen, hydroxyl, thiol, halogen, oxygen, imino, iminium, alkyl imino, alkyl iminium, amino, alkyl amino, or —NHR^(c), and at least one of R¹, R⁴, R⁵, R⁸-R¹³, R¹⁵, R¹⁶, R¹⁸, R¹⁹, R²¹ or R²² is a linker covalently binding the fluorophore to the viologen backbone; (b) general formula (iii)

where X¹ is oxygen and R⁶ and R¹⁶ are —NHR^(c); or (c) general formula (iv)

where X¹ is oxygen and R¹⁶ and R²¹ are —NHR^(c). 46-49. (canceled) 